Keywords

1 Introduction

1.1 A New Vision of Future Mobility

For a long time, the first association with a city of the future was an abundance of futuristic-looking vehicles that intersect on several levels, either through tubes, or flying on super-fast highways. This concept is based heavily on science fiction films and focuses on the technological advancement of individual (private) vehicles. The automation of these vehicles has long been considered the disruptive step into the future. From our view, future mobility refers not simply to a highly innovative technological development of transportation devices, but also to a rethinking of socially and environmentally compatible mobility. A transformation is necessary, a sustainable change in mobility behavior. It is not only a matter of increasingly automating means of transport and making them more context-sensitive, but also of concepts that encourage road users to rethink, to switch from using private cars to an intelligent combination of climate-neutral means of transport. We could conclude, many ideas of future mobility are already the past.

Urban areas encounter a number of particular challenges. According to the study “Mobility in Germany 2008” [1], individual mobility in urban areas is strongly characterized by motorized private transport, which accounts for 71% of transport. The level of motorization in Germany has increased steadily in recent decades [2], and traffic jams on the way to and from work have become part of everyday life. Pollution degrades air quality, traffic noise affects residents and parking spaces take up a large part of urban public space. Further expansion of the transport infrastructure is hardly possible. We need intelligent solutions that offer an attractive alternative to the use of private cars.

Research has shown that various factors influence mobility behavior such as the transport system itself but also subjective socio-psychological as well as objective socio-demographic and socio-economic factors [3]. Objective and subjective factors complement each other and only the interaction of all influencing variables results in new, sustainable mobility behavior [4, 5]. In our view, the vision of future mobility consists of four important aspects (see Fig. 1): intermodal and connected solutions, shared and public means of transport, automated and flexible vehicles integrated, as well as a safe and secure interplay between all road users. These topics coincide with items on the European Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA)Footnote 1 and are prominent in current programs of national and international mobility conferences.

Fig. 1.
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Future mobility subjects

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Some ideas to make local public transport more attractive refer to intermodal transport chains and to a combination of transport service providers. With mobile internet, the idea of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) appeared and is still an evolving concept [6]. This innovation allows users to plan trips and move with different mobility modes offered by different service providers, using a single interface. Hence, it becomes more comfortable to use different connected means of transportation, which is one factor for mobility behavior. The aim of moving in a more environmentally friendly way has also united a large number of people. This promoted the development of environmentally friendly micro vehicles “for the last mile” and sharing offers. These options need to provide a high level of comfort and meet mobility needs to replace the private use of individual vehicles [7]. Moreover, for the acceptance of all means of transport, safety and security issues are decisive. Even if the objective safety level not necessarily corresponds to how safe people feel within a traffic system or situation, feeling unsafe might affect the decision to participate in traffic in general as well as the decision for or against a certain means of transport and a certain mobility behavior [8].

Only all these aspects together, like pieces of a puzzle, give a complete picture. Another approach could be to move beyond mobility and enable telepresence or optimize home office work whilst thinking of how to reduce the needs for daily mobility. This cannot only help reduce CO2 emissions, but likewise cut worker stress. Either way, it is crucial to get people to rethink. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to initiate a behavior change in transport and to support it via sophisticated and intelligent human-machine interfaces.

In the following, we would like to give an overview of the topics that research and development projects are currently dealing with in the area of human-technology interaction in Germany. We focus mostly on research projects funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI). One BMBF funding initiative “Individual and adaptive technologies for connected mobility” focuses on the connection of different mobility options and communication technologies in order to develop safe, individualized and flexible solutions for human mobility needs. The research projects have a strong emphasis on the human-technology interaction. The BMVI initiative “mFUND” is funding projects related to digital data-based applications for Mobility 4.0.

2 Intermodal Urban Mobility

2.1 Intermodal Transport Chains

Intermodal and connected mobility solutions are trending and seen as a key factor for moving people without using their own cars. With digital technologies come many opportunities to develop Mobility as a Service (MaaS) solutions. Schikofsky and colleagues studied the motivational mechanisms that encourage people to use those new services. They show that psychological needs like autonomy, competence and the feeling of being related to a social peer group play a crucial role in the acceptance of those services and can lead to behavioral changes [9].

Many researched projects focus on interlinking different means of transport, in particular individual transport, public transport and sharing services. They want to provide a seamless, comfortable and customized transport, for example by avoiding overcrowded buses and providing connection security. To reach this, digital services with well-designed user interfaces are necessary. Aim of the project “MaaS L.A.B.S”Footnote 2 is to develop a MaaS platform, which offers integrated mobility planning for users and implements operational control and billing with cross-provider cooperation models. It will be possible to book different mobility options via the platform, which will include both public transport and sharing services. Payment will be possible by an integrated tariff model. Microbuses will operate in predefined service corridors in real time according to current passenger requests. The system will efficiently bundle the requests onto vehicles and at the same time secure connecting services. The central concern of the project is to promote an economically and ecologically sensible transformation of existing mobility systems with the help of attractive offers away from private ownership toward the shared use of mobility resources. In terms of broad transferability, the focus is on small and medium-sized cities. In an iterative user-centered process, the needs and requirements in two cities (with living labs in Potsdam and Cottbus) will be identified and implemented as demonstrations during the course of the project. The three living labs are used for user-centered research, they provide opportunities for workshops and tests where users can experience the future development and give feedback. In this way, the needs and requirements of potential users are comprehensively ascertained and flow directly into the iterative design and development of the app as well as mobility stations and microbuses.

Not only for end customers, the user interface is crucial for informed and thoughtful mobility decisions. Therefore, an important focus is also on the planners of the cities and transport systems. To help traffic managers and city planners, the project “allyMAP”Footnote 3, funded by BMVI, used data-based methods to enable more demand-oriented, economical, comfortable and environmentally friendly mobility solutions for people in urban and rural areas. The researchers implemented a solution as a mobility analysis platform for transport companies, private providers of mobility solutions, as well as city and transport planners. With this platform, it is possible to identify mobility needs, and accordingly plan a demand-based intermodal mobility service and simulate a planning by aggregating and intelligently processing a variety of different data (traffic, population, route network data, etc.). A challenge here was to design an interface that displays complex data and its interrelationships in an easy and understandable way and to develop models that can predict mobility behavior based on different data.

One of the projects that has already moved from research status to implementation of a beta phase is the “jelbi” mobility app for Berlin. A variety of shared mobility services in Berlin was connected with public transport in one single marketplace in 2019.

One important aspect of connected mobility services is that they inevitably collect location information from users. From the GPS location of a mobile phone, conclusions can be drawn about a person's activities, place of residence, inclinations, beliefs or social network. An important new research area is the so-called digital sovereignty of technology users. Most smartphones pass information via apps to companies by default, without explaining the risks to users in an understandable way or providing detailed control options. The “SIMPORT” projectFootnote 4 aims to develop guidelines and software modules for the sovereign management of one's own location information on the mobile end device. A software will visualize possible conclusions from one's own location information and explain the advantages and disadvantages of passing on location information. Users will be informed about the risks to pass on their data and can specify in detail which location data they want to share, when, with whom and in what detail.

In the future, the analysis must go beyond mere “user acceptance” in order to consolidate the adoption of more sustainable mobility options. Here, analysis of the factors that support a switch from private cars to more sustainable modes of transport will be important (see also [9]). Personal data can help create well-tailored and appropriately high-use services. However, safeguarding the privacy of users must also always be a priority.

2.2 Combined Transport of Goods and People

Carrying luggage, shopping bags or larger packages is a key barrier to the use of urban public transport [10]. A highly promising approach to solving this problem is the combination of passenger transport and delivery services for luggage or goods. Delivery services are common in food retailing. Customer-friendly delivery for on-site shopping is not yet established. Aim of the project “U-hoch-3”Footnote 5 is an intelligent mobility application that helps to organize the transport of goods while traveling by public transport. Users will have the option to leave purchases directly at the retailer and have them dropped off later at pick-up points near their home, for example, when they get off at their stop. In a survey, 30% of respondents (n = 357) completely or largely agreed that they would like to use such a delivery service [11]. In the project “U-hoch-3”, there will be a first testing of unaccompanied autonomous delivery robots in two shopping centers that interact with customers to pick up purchases and take them to microdepots or city hubs for further delivery by electric micro mobiles or bicycles. To test the practicality and reliability of the developed services, there will be a one-year field test in 2023 in the city of Kassel.

The increasing number of parcels due to online retail poses logistical problems for courier, express, and parcel service (CEP) providers [12]. There is a lack of parking and storage facilities in the city center. An intelligent delivery concept in combination with electrified micro mobiles could lead to a reduction in noise and pollution as well as inner-city traffic density. The project “Ich ersetze ein Auto” (English: “I replace a car”) [13] and its follow-up project “Ich entlaste Städte” (“I relieve cities”) [14] have shown that by using electric cargo bikes, deliveries with a passenger car can be successfully substituted by more environmentally friendly vehicles. Courier service providers can reduce the use of combustion-engine vehicles and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Half of the participants considered buying their own cargo bike at the end of the test phase or bought one immediately.

In Berlin, the project “KoMoDo”Footnote 6 combines a city hub with electric cargo bikes. Five of the largest national parcel service providers tested delivery of packages by using one microdepot cooperatively and cargo bikes.

Accordingly, one option is environmentally friendly delivery by bicycle delivery services. Another option is to automated delivery with other means. In the “FlowPro” projectFootnote 7, micro mobiles like multicopter drones and driverless transport systems are supposed to deliver goods on the base of a self-organizing logistics system that uses artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms. Similarly, the project “KEP-Town” analyzed the potential of automated micromobiles for courier, express and parcel delivery services in urban areas (2017–2018). Results suggest that automated delivery can be successful, from a technical, ethical, social or legal perspective. The project identified intention recognition of people on the sidewalks that may cross the trajectory of the autonomous delivery vehicle as essential. New interaction and display concepts are required to enable automated vehicles to communicate with pedestrians. Current robot concepts are not yet applicable in inner-city traffic.

While the transport options for goods described so far are spatially and temporally independent of the user, other projects are concerned with transport platforms that follow the user directly. The project “UrbANT”Footnote 8 develops a micromobile for transport of goods that automatically follows its user on sidewalks. The vehicle then drives back autonomously to a base station after completing the transport task. Based on the results of an extensive user study in the “UrbANT” project, a demonstrator of this transport platform will be developed and then tested in the field. The focus of the evaluation lies on the interaction between the micromobile and its users, but also passers-by on the sidewalk.

The challenge for the implementation of autonomous vehicles therefore clearly lies not only in the function of automated driving, but also in an appropriate interaction with the user and with all persons who come into contact with the new technology in their everyday life. Thus, research should continue to focus on the development of multimodal communication concepts of autonomous vehicles or robo cars with the environment. Again, user requirements, user acceptance and human factors, e.g. psychological aspects like trust or motivation should be the focus of research for a successful market launch.

2.3 Last Mile Mobility – (e-)Bikes, (e-)Scooters and Other Micro Mobiles

Personal Light Electric Vehicles (PLEV), e-scooters, pedelecs and e-bikes, but also traditional and cargo bikes are getting more and more popular. These small vehicles enable flexible individual mobility in urban environments, especially for short and mid distances. A suitable role of cycles and PLEVs in urban mobility may be to commute the first and last mile by complementing public transport. For successful integration, it needs good concepts of intermodal transport chains like examined above.

Even when electrically powered, these small vehicles small can contribute significantly to improving air quality in urban regions by replacing daily use of cars with combustion engine. Even compared to electric cars, they can be ecological due to the smaller moving mass and thus higher efficiency. Additionally, they can help reduce traffic jams by taking up less space. For the elderly or physically handicapped people, these vehicles can create new incentives and opportunities for individual “open-air mobility”. Moreover, using those vehicles can support health and wellbeing for example by reducing the risk of death from Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and from cancer [15]. A study by Castro and colleagues found suggestions for e-bike use leading to significant increase in physical activity, especially for people switching from private motorized vehicle or public transport. Also people switching from bicycle to e-bike show more physical activity due to much longer trip distances [16].

Another important aspect is the acceptance of these new mobiles by other road users. Kampf and Constien therefore examined which aspects are necessary for a semi-autonomous PLEV in public to be accepted by other road users [17]. They found that people are in general open to use those new vehicles, and would like to use them e. g. for shopping, leisure trips or also to get to work. Challenges are both regulatory and technical in nature: PLEVs with sufficient engine power must be registered as motor vehicles and may then only be driven on the road. Many people find this too unsafe. It also leads to a loss of flexibility in case of traffic jams or construction sites. One proposed solution is the adaptive design of such vehicles that can adapt to the driving environment and limit speed accordingly. This is accompanied by the need to communicate the status of the vehicle to other road users. In the “Kamaeleon” projectFootnote 9, the question on how the vehicle can show its current status to other road users is widely examined by field studies in different areas like parks, urban pedestrian walkways but also at exhibition centers or in industrial areas. An interesting research question here is the mechanism of “informal social control”. If a rule violation such as speeding is displayed on the vehicle for all to see, compliant behavior could be achieved via this mechanism as the driver feels shame or guilty. In the project, the vehicle is developed tamper-proof to always drive automatically at adjusted speed according to the conditions and the surroundings.

In addition to these human factors issues, the discussion about where there is even room on the streets and sidewalks for PLEVs and all the people is in full swing and is crucial for the acceptance of new vehicles. This shows that not only the mere design of the vehicles themselves is a factor for acceptance. Urban mobility of the future must be thought of as a complex interplay of various factors to meet the challenges and enable a change to sustainable mobility behavior.

3 Shared Mobility

Part of intermodal transport chains as described earlier can be the shared use of vehicles like a car, bicycle, scooter or micro mobiles. Sharing economy services have become very popular in general, with shared mobility being a prime example. It has become common not only to share a ride in one's own car but also to share a taxi, or to borrow a vehicle on any street corner. A status report from Germany [18] describes the different concepts of goods sharing ranging from station-based or free floating car, roller, bike or kickscooter sharing or peer-to-peer carsharing, and of service sharing like carpooling, ridepooling or ridehaling. Most of the new sharing providers limit the offer to central urban areas, new business models and concepts are necessary, to expand those offers into suburban and rural areas.

Ridepooling is a still quite novel service of a collective transport, which combines different travel requests in one vehicle. Cities like Berlin, Hamburg or Hannover provide ridepooling services, which drive passengers in on-demand shuttles (Berlkönig, Clevershuttle or MOIA). An empirical study could demonstrate that acceptance is a critical success factor and perceived compatibility has the strongest impact: The technology and service must be compatible to the individual lifestyle [19].

The project “EinfachTeilen”Footnote 10 (meaning “SimplySharing”) developed a concept for intelligent car sharing in urban areas. While station-based or free-floating car sharing providers add their own vehicles to the existing amount of cars, peer-to-peer car sharing of private cars could help to reduce the number of vehicles in total. However, sharing private goods is strongly constrained by fears and trust issues. User studies within the project could show that some people are very open to new mobility concepts such as peer-to-peer car sharing. They show an increased willingness to change their own mobility behavior in an ecologically positive way. In order to put their ideas and intentions into practice, this group lacks sufficient information about the already existing concepts. In focus group interviews, it became clear that potential renters of private vehicles have strong concerns about disclosing their personal data. Shared car owners, on the other hand, have an interest in data that helps them better assess the driving behavior and thus the trustworthiness of potential renters. The operationalization of trustworthiness thus plays a central role in this concept. A solution could be rental to friends as in an approach by General Motors, or by ratings of other users [20].

Bikesharing is an eco-friendly alternative to the use of motorized vehicles that has become very popular in the past five years and is offered in mostly every larger city. Using the smartphone to locate a bike and then dropping the bike at any place after the ride is on one hand very user-friendly, but is accompanied by various problems like vandalism on the other hand. One of the biggest challenges in the operation of bike sharing systems is the redistribution or rebalancing problem, which results from the discontinuous demand and return of bicycles.

Recently, combining sharing concepts with autonomous components have been discussed as particularly advantageous. The use case is very simple: People can call an autonomous bike or cargo bike to their location, even in the suburbs, use it as a traditional bike and release it at their destination. However, this involves both technical hurdles and conceptual challenges. Even if the bike is fully functional and ready for use, people have to accept it to suit their mobility needs. Krause et al. therefore studied users' needs for an autonomous cargo bike as well as discussing aspects that are important for other road users who would encounter the bike in real life traffic [21].

The project “TRANSFORMERS” analyzed the acceptance of autonomous bicycles as a part of a bike sharing system. Here, the bike can also be called and returns to the station autonomously after use. In interviews, users showed an ambivalent attitude when evaluating video material; in actual contact with the autonomous e-bike, impressions were positive. Understandable signaling of bicycle behavior will be central to implementation, as bicycles will meet pedestrians. The perception of velocity and anticipation of reactions is an important issue for further research [22].

To sum up, sharing concepts provide a cost-effective and efficient utilization of vehicles, and reduce parking requirements. Trust issues and acceptance are the relevant human factor aspects to solve in the interaction with these new technologies. In addition, it will become necessary to develop standardized concepts for visual or acoustic signals with which (partially) autonomous vehicles interact with their environment.

4 Automated Vehicles for Public Transport

For some time now, autonomous vehicles are considered the disruptive step to profoundly change passenger and freight transport. Autonomous driving has the potential to make travel more comfortable, cheaper and safer, but it does not necessarily reduce traffic jam. Some even claim that fully autonomous vehicles allow more people to use a car, like people without a driving license or children [23]. Still, automated vehicles can also improve the public transport section, as with autonomous shuttle services to urban railway stations or as autonomous transport platforms for luggage or shopping bags. Some pilot projects in Germany have shown the advantages and challenges.

Since 2018, automated minibuses have been transporting passengers on the campuses of Berlin's Charité and Virchow-Klinikum hospitals (in cooperation with the Berlin transport association) along a defined route at a maximum speed of 12 km/h. Since 2017 the use of autonomously driving shuttles for the so-called “last mile” is tested in Bad Birnbach (by Deutsche Bahn) as a feeder to public transport. The design of human-technology interaction is in the focus of several research projects. The interaction with passengers, more precisely the situation of boarding and alighting when using autonomous shuttles and pods in the street space was analyzed by the “Hop-on_Hop-off” project [24]. User requirements were investigated on the EUREF campus in Berlin using the driverless shuttle “Emily”. Passengers place high demands on safety and service quality. Willingness to use the service is particularly high if the shuttle picks up a person from home at his or her preferred time and the trip is included in a public transport subscription. The interviewed experts see the greatest obstacles in a lack of reliability and excessively low speeds due to regulatory and safety concerns. A recommendation for designing the interaction with passengers was, for example, that boarding the shuttle should be more personalized by indicating to the passenger that it is the correct and booked ride. The interaction with other road users was another core topic; for example, the shuttle should be clearly recognizable as a driverless vehicle.

The “KOLA” project [25] dealt with outward interaction of automated cars, but the findings are transferable to busses or other vehicles. Using light-based signals such as LEDs or laser headlights, the vehicle should communicate with the outside world in order to be able to act cooperatively in road traffic. This becomes particularly relevant if there is no more eye contact in the driverless vehicle. As a substitute, the vehicle can signal to pedestrians that they can cross the road, for example, by projecting a crosswalk. In the project, a number of those situations for cooperation in traffic was developed with the help of a diary study and an online survey. The designed light scenarios were than tested in two driving simulator studies. Results showed, that in these scenarios, appropriate communication through light could support the perception of safety and confidence in mobility, which can even contribute to a positive traffic atmosphere on the long term [26].

Some other projects focus on the changes brought by the introduction of automated driving in public transport, such as in the “RAMONA” projectFootnote 11. Trials in Braunschweig and Berlin were conducted with simulated self-driving buses, i.e. the driver was not visible to the outside or inside (so-called “Wizard of Oz” setting), and the reactions of pedestrians and passengers were observed. Similarly, the “UNICARagil” projectFootnote 12 examined how passengers interact with an autonomous vehicle when entering and exiting the vehicle. Two areas were identified that would be significantly changed by the removal of a driver. A replacement is necessary for the many service tasks, such as giving passengers boarding information or helping with ticket selection. The “RAMONA” project uncovered that bus drivers drive extremely efficiently and react at bus stops under high concentration to pedestrians entering the safety areas. The distance between the bus and the waiting passengers is sometimes below the threshold of the safety protocol for autonomous driving. Consequently, an autonomous bus would have to enter the stop much more slowly for safety reasons. The demands on the sensor technology in the autonomous vehicle are thus very high.

For the implementation of autonomous vehicles in public transport, it is also necessary to consider central findings of automation psychology since the 1950s: when automated systems are implemented, the tasks for humans shift from executive to supervisory activities (monitoring) and this shift causes safety problems. Therefore, the interaction between driver and vehicle or operator and vehicle, has to be carefully designed on scientific knowledge. Likewise, interactions between the vehicle and passengers or other road users must be considered and redesigned. Not only with regard to automated vehicles is safety crucial for acceptance, adoption and impact.

5 Safe and Secure Solutions for Certainty and Acceptance

To promote the use of new mobility offers, it is necessary to create a secure transport infrastructure and surrounding. Agarwal et al. study the implications and possibilities of special bicycle highways in India [27] and found that physically segregated high-quality bicycle highways can attract previous non-cyclists and increase bicycle traffic in general. Also in many European cities the idea of special bike roads or highways is discussed, e.g. for Berlin with the first mobility law in Germany [28] and the first car-free bicycle highway in the Ruhr RegionFootnote 13. In Copenhagen and Amsterdam, a lot of effort was put into making the cities cyclist-friendly, with great success: Both are said to be some of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. Besides the interest in safe infrastructure, there are also security activities for bike users directly. The aim of research project “Safety4Bikes”, funded by the BMBF was to develop modular assistance systems designed to detect imminent dangers based on the current traffic situation. In the event of acute hazards in the immediate vicinity or in potentially dangerous situations, the system warns the person riding the bike via acoustic, visual or haptic signals on the helmet or handlebars. The researchers examined which form of warning is most suitable for this purpose. In addition, safety is to be improved via a communication interface to other people participating in traffic e.g. cars.

Another research project “ABALID” focused on supporting truck drivers in possible conflict situations with cyclists when turning right. Jürgensohn and project partners tested feedback principles of such a system for their effectiveness and user acceptance [29]. The technical recognition rate of the demonstrator was examined in real tests and determined to be about 80%. Increased safety for other road users through truck assistance systems is also the focus of the project “AugMir”. Here, a system of robust environment sensors as well as the associated software is being developed to display processed data from the environment to drivers in augmented reality (AR). For this purpose, a network of wide-angle stereo cameras is used to continuously record the surroundings of the vehicle and any trailers that may be present in a redundant manner. This data is fused and displayed as a virtual mirror in the driver's cab using AR glasses. This not only makes it possible to point out obstacles and road users in the collision area, but also to provide a virtual view of the surroundings “through” the vehicle. Nevertheless, technical limitations and situational imponderables do not allow for one hundred percent system security, which makes acceptance by users difficult. Good system design is necessary to support drivers and bikers without leading to become overconfident.

In addition to assistance systems for individual road users such as vehicle drivers or cyclists, new types of systems are currently developed that can be integrated into the road infrastructure and thus reach all road users - regardless of the technological equipment. One example is the “MeBeSafe” projectFootnote 14, which used various light elements in the road infrastructure to influence the individual driving speed of road users. In this way, it should be possible to avoid critical events in advance.

Even as semi-automated (micro) vehicles become part of our cities, there will long be a mix of diverse road users, most of whom are not automated. This is accompanied by unclear and dangerous situations in road traffic. Those can be avoided, if all parties involved communicate their intentions clearly and are thus able to correctly assess each other's behavior. For this kind of nonverbal communication we need new concepts and designs that are examined in different research projects (as the above mentioned project “KOLA”Footnote 15, or “atCity”Footnote 16).

6 Moving Beyond Mobility

Another way to think of the future of urban life is to ask about the necessity of mobility itself. New applications with mixed reality (MR) technologies can enable collaborative intellectual but also physical work (e.g., new forms of remote maintenance) even over long distances. In addition to the advantages for commuters who have to travel longer distances every day for work reasons, virtual, augmented or mixed reality technologies could address social needs. Spatial distance and restricted time resources, social isolation or individual restrictions minimize the possibility of shared experiences. In times of globalization and urbanization, the social environment is often widely distributed. In 2018, around 10% of all couples in Germany lived apart [30]. Furthermore, health or financial limitations hinder some people from participating in cultural events. Other fields in which “proximity over distance” will be possible via AR and VR are educationFootnote 17 as well as the participation of older people in social life. If people no longer had to travel, many hurdles in terms of work, social and cultural needs could be overcome.

Bridging spatial distances even without mobility has become a very strong focus, especially in 2020, due to the contact restrictions associated with the Corona pandemic. In healthcare, telemedicine approaches are booming, for example by implementing consultation, diagnostics and therapy in video consultations [31]. How to support telemedicine professionals is the objective of the “MEDIBILITY” projectFootnote 18, which aims to hand over parts of patient communication to AI-supported bots. The medical staff will not be replaced but supported, so that the consultation process is divided hybrid between bot and doctor. Another approach is examined in the “EXGAVINE” projectFootnote 19, which aim is to use VR exergames for the treatment of adults with dementia. One example game is the “Memory Journalist”, were patients shall memorize locations of landmarks and photograph them using a camera-like controller by exploiting simple motor tasks. The results of a first user study were very promising as the exercises could be reproduced even by patients with medium dementia, who could use the camera controller, similar to what they were used to before [32].

Still there are several technical challenges as well as obstacles for a widespread use, primarily addressing the simultaneous work and movement of several people in both the virtual and the real environment as well as the safe implementation of manual operations from a distance. In addition to the technological development of new MR systems mentioned above, there are a number of human factors issues to be resolved. In order to actually experience participation or presence, mixed reality should be characterized by the highest possible level of immersion and offer opportunities for interaction. Research topics include place illusion (the feeling of actually being in a place in virtual space) and social presence illusion (the feeling of being in a place with another person). In addition, effects on social relationships as well as on group behavior by long-term usage have to be further examined. So far, it is unclear, how peoples’ social behavior and cognitive abilities could change due to daily or extensive use of MR systems.

If these technical as well as social and psycho-physiological issues are solved and examined, the choice of place of residence is much less influenced by spatial proximity to the workplace. As a result, rural regions can become more attractive as business locations as well as places of residence and be strengthened overall. Additionally, cities could be designed for shorter ways with mixed areas of living, working and shopping.

7 Conclusions for Future Research

Growing cities and traffic problems are a central social challenge. In the field of human factors in urban mobility, the research focus has thus shifted from traffic safety to new objectives such as quality of life in the city and climate protection.

Research on road safety will continue and has long driven technology development in the private passenger car. But now, new fields have emerged in which technology and digitalization are unfolding. These are intermodal and connected, shared and public mobility. In these areas, the goals are currently gains in convenience and efficiency for mobility users. Future research will certainly focus more on how to achieve behavioral changes through interaction with technology, i.e. how people can be convinced to switch to environmentally and socially friendly alternatives instead of using a private car. This is where the field of human factors can unfold its potential and, for example, take up concepts from motivational psychology. Serious games and gamification principles could be a key to encourage users to use public transportation or ride a bicycle instead of using a private car [33].

In the realization of connected mobility, the use of smartphones will continue to play a central role. Modern concepts such as car, bike or e-scooter sharing, carpooling or taxi shuttles would not be possible without the smartphone. However, we can move beyond concepts that solely rely on applications on our smartphones. For this purpose, we should discuss the potential of intelligent infrastructure. We might forgo smartphones, when bus stops or train stations as well as the vehicles are connected and interactive themselves.

In the latter areas, mobility will increasingly rely on the processing of data, including personal information. This is also accompanied by a new need for research. Private companies collected and analyzed data with little constraints until in Europe the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into force in May 2018. For interactive technologies, this is an opportunity to establish transparent and controllable data use in Europe that can compete internationally. User-friendly implementation of privacy can and should become a research focus also in the field of mobility services. Just like safety from accidents, data security plays a central role in the research field of trust in new, innovative means of transport, a key not only for autonomous mobilityFootnote 20.

There is no doubt that automated vehicles could and will change our mobility dramatically. Large companies like Tesla, Ford or General Motors are working hard on their development, triggered by government funding, as well as Volkswagen, Daimler and BMW. The ethos of the maker, who works on visionary technologies in competition with others, is predominant here, as displayed in particular in the DARPA Challenges (see also [34]). However, early promises that autonomous cars would soon be on the roads have proved too optimistic. Autonomous driving on city streets is still in its infancy. It is noteworthy that decades of knowledge gained from human factors research on automation from the fields of aviation or production is now replicated with regard to mobility: It is not the mere replacement of humans that is the solution for more safety and comfort. It is about the successful support of humans by technology, which can only begin with a careful assessment of needs and a desirable vision of the future for society. Developers and engineers must not repeat the mistake of blindly realizing technology fantasies in a highly competitive timeframe, putting the cart before the horse, so to speak. We should strive to avoid a strictly rational-technical worldview and be careful not to neglect “soft” factors such as sociological or psychological aspects of technological change, but – in contrast – to focus on them.

Technology has the potential to solve some of our current mobility challenges, but it is not a solution per se. We claim that as a first step we must define what kind of cities we do consider worth living in, what kind of mobility enhances our quality of life. Right from the start of the development process, we further advocate a continuous analysis of the psychological and sociological effects of the planned changes. Still often neglected, this should be the core of any research and development project.

From our point of view, the following research questions will remain important in the next years: It is urgently necessary to solve how individual mobility can be changed to be climate-friendly and environmentally compatible. We need to find out how people can be convinced to support this change. Everyone should be able to participate in mobility, regardless of physical impairments. We must find ways to ensure safety for all road users, independently of costly, individual assistance systems. Flagship projects are necessary to demonstrate how data protection can be guaranteed for strongly data-driven, connected mobility offers. And, as a final point, we need to find out if perhaps partially we can do without mobility because virtual and augmented reality technologies enable us to be close at a distance. These are exciting research questions that might help us to design liveable cities with sustainable infrastructure and mobility. Human factors and ergonomics should apply its relevant skills and knowledge to assist this process.