Abstract
The fundamental right to education is at the same time a pre-requisite for the full enjoyment of other rights and a pivotal tool for a successful process of integration into society. The first part of this paper concerns the educational rights recognized at the international, European and Italian level to refugee, asylum-seeking and migrant minors in general. It further deals with the key components of an inclusive and effective education to be offered to particularly vulnerable subjects. Finally, it considers the persistence of barriers, challenges and differences in national regulations impacting on the first phase of access to education and its prosecution. The second part analyses more specifically the right to education of unaccompanied foreign minors at the EU level, with a focus on the Italian system. The challenges raised by minors attaining majority, as well as the not always satisfactory answers given at the regulatory level, are then assessed in deep. In their attempt to overcome these obstacles, the integration projects managed by local authorities, reception centres and the third sector will look for different ways to grant minors a school qualification and to allow them to complete a process of integration leading to their full transition to autonomy.
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Notes
- 1.
This was pointed out by the EU Institutions even before the migration crisis in the Mediterranean and Western Balkans.
- 2.
Kanics outlines the multidisciplinary approach to determine in practice the general principle of the best interests of the child included as a general principle in CRC.
- 3.
The Action Plan on the Protection of Migrant and Refugee Children 2017-2019, adopted by the Council of Europe, is considered a model which States should carefully consider in order to implement the principle under which, in the context of migration, children should be treated first and foremost as children. This objective requires an effective guardianship system in each Member State, appropriate shelter for children and their families during emergencies and mass arrivals, support to children and families in restoring family links and reunification in accordance with existing norms, measures to avoid resorting to the deprivation children’s liberty on the sole ground of their migration status and guarantees that children are protected from violence, including trafficking and sexual exploitation.
- 4.
These factors hinder UFMs’ ability to independently achieve a good quality of live.
- 5.
Art. 26 of the Declaration is similar to Article 34 of the Italian Constitution, the latter providing that «school is open to everyone. Lower education has a minimum duration of 8 years and is mandatory and free. Skilled and worthy students, notwithstanding their financial means, have the right to reach the highest ranks of the school system. The Italian Republic makes this right effective by providing scholarships, family allowances and other providences […]».
- 6.
As highlighted by the UN Committee on social and cultural rights, education is both a human right in itself and an instrumental factor to realise and enhance other human rights as well as potential abilities.
- 7.
The European Social Charter directly safeguards the right to education of children and young people (Art. 17.2), granting them a right to free primary and secondary education and encouraging their regular school attendance. Indirect safeguards established by the Charter include imposing restrictions to the occupational rights of minors, in order to allow them to benefit from compulsory education (Art. 7). The European Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers asserts that «the child of a migrant worker shall have the basic right of access to education on the basis of equality of treatment with nationals of the State concerned. Access to public pre-school educational institutions or schools shall not be refused or limited by reason of the irregular situation with respect to stay or employment of either parent or by reason of the irregularity of the child’s stay in the State of employment».
- 8.
Art. 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by the General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, entered into force on 2 September 1990.
- 9.
Article 24 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, based on the common constitutional traditions of Member States and on Article 2 of the Protocol 1 to the ECHR, extends the access to vocational and continuing training and adds the principle of free compulsory education.
- 10.
Until 2019, there were not legislative obligations to provide undocumented migrant children with access to education in five EU countries: Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Latvia and Lithuania. Even though education for children is mandatory under the constitution of these countries, the decision to admit minors to schools is at the discretion of the individual institution. Moreover, enrolment in public schools can be delayed between 3 and 6 months in various EU Member States, for reasons including a lack of knowledge of the host language.
- 11.
On the basis of Art. 8.2 of Directive 2013/33/EU migrants can be detained for immigration-related reasons, either as asylum applicants, to ensure transfer under the Dublin Regulation procedure 73 or to facilitate their return, «when it proves necessary and on the basis of an individual assessment of each case, Member States may detain an applicant, if other less coercive alternative measures cannot be applied effectively».
- 12.
Detention conditions of children «remained poor or even deteriorated in 2019». The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), ruling on cases under its jurisdiction, over time has outlined in increasingly punctual terms the positive protection and assistance obligations deriving from Art. 3 of the European Convention of Human Rights, in the case of particularly vulnerable children exposed to degrading situations. Even though the ECHR has not always condemned the detention of minors, it requires that there must be no other less coercive measures. According to the Court, the individual case must be based on three factors: age, conditions of detention and duration of the detention.
- 13.
A comparison between the different approaches adopted by the European education systems to the contents of preparatory classes is made. In a number of education systems belonging to the Eurydice network, the regulations or recommendations about preparatory classes are under the responsibility of the central authorities, while in Italy and in the United Kingdom the related decisions are taken by local authorities and schools. The curricula of preparatory classes and language classes also differ significantly.
- 14.
Germany is considered an example that could inspire future initiatives, because «its approach to the integration of asylum seekers and refugees has combined policymaking at several levels (federal, regional and at higher education institutions) with comprehensive measures implemented through responsible bodies, and with a clear monitoring system».
- 15.
Specifically, The Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe highlighted in 2018 the gap between the international legal provisions and their implementation by the Council of Europe member States and adopted some recommendations to improve the existing conditions in order to ensure migrant children’s education.
- 16.
The survey illustrates that students of migrant background are more than twice as likely to be low achievers as other students. In order to prevent the marginalisation of young people, it is vital to have inclusive and equitable education systems that foster cohesive societies.
- 17.
For students from migrant backgrounds and/or for those who speak a language at home which is different from the language of education, having a sense of belonging is particularly important in order to be successfully integrated within their school communities and to achieve their potential.
- 18.
This is the average age at the national and European level; in this second case, only asylum seekers who are unaccompanied minors are counted.
- 19.
The amendments introduced by the Law 47/2017 on the legislative Decree 142/2015 mean implement guarantees and protection forms in favour of the unaccompanied minors as the institute of the personal interview and, after this, the compilation of a social folder by qualified personnel and the right to be heard.
- 20.
On 30th December 2019 the ECHR, under Rule 39 of the Rules of Court, granted interim measures to five UFM asylum seekers, who had been living for many months in a hotpot and in the “jungle” of Samos Island. The Court took into account the reception conditions, the extreme vulnerability of the children, and the exposition of minors to an imminent and irreparable harm to their physical and mental integrity.
- 21.
For the first reception of UFMs and in order to make this first phase more structured, the Law n. 47/2017 provides the opening of specific governmental centres. However, the centres are not operational yet. Therefore, the first reception of minors is based centres financed by the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund (FAMI), an emergency intervention by municipalities and further last resort solution which are not always suitable. In the second reception phase, all UFMs should be accommodated only for a long term stay in the framework of the Protection System for Asylum and Refugees (SIPROIMI, the former SPRAR). However, if no SIPROIMI accommodation is available, other less protected alternatives are provided: local social-educative communities managed by the municipality or, only as long this is strictly necessary, Extraordinary Reception facilities.
- 22.
Translation by the author: «I arrived in Calabria and I applied for asylum. I was in one centre for 7 months. I was not mistreated, but we were left without anything to do, we were not enrolled in a school or taught Italian, nothing… and I could see the older boys who went out, they could not find a job, any kind of job. So I left. I have a cousin in France, I want to go to stay with him. I want to work».
- 23.
Even though the protection measures envisaged by the Law n. 47/2017, the on the Committee on the Rights of the Child expressed concern about possible consequences of the Law n. 132/2018 and several problematic issues concerning the treatment of UFMs for which it calls for urgent measures by the State.
- 24.
Particular attention is dedicated to Roma, Sinti and Caminanti, who remain subject to high rates of school drop-out, as noted above, and forced evictions. The case-law of the ECHR has also dealt with the schooling of Roma, Sinti and Caminanti, ruling that Member States are under an obligation to guarantee the schooling of the Roma people and eliminating any form of school segregation.
- 25.
The Law n. 517 of 4 August 1977 stands out as a first milestone towards a school system aimed at tackling different forms of disadvantage. The Law abolished special education schools and integrated pupils with disabilities into ordinary classes. After 40 years, the spirit of the Law was renovated by the Legislative Decree n. 66 of 2017, mandating a scholastic inclusion compliant with the right to self-determination, to a reasonable accommodation and to the respect of the cultural and educational identity of every child with disabilities. Under the Decree, an educational individualized plan must be elaborated and shared among schools, families and territorial entities.
- 26.
Art. 1 co. 622 of Law n. 296 of 27 December 2006.
- 27.
The guardian must enclose with the registration his appointment by the judicial authority and the certificate of compulsory vaccinations required under Art. 3 bis of the Law n. 119/2017. The guardian has a duty to monitor the insertion process and to have a constant dialogue with the teachers of the minor.
- 28.
In the last few years before majority, minors will have to attend the course to obtain the final qualification of the first cycle, even if they are not yet able to take the final exam, in order to fulfil their right-duty to education as provided by the Legislative Decree n. 76 of 15 April 2005. The hours of attendance will be counted in the subsequent school year in order to enable these students to take the exam in advance.
- 29.
CPIAs are a type of autonomous educational institution established by the Presidential Decree n. 263 of 29 October 2012. They have their own staff and a specific educational and organizational structure. CPIAs are divided into territorial service networks: Art. 1 of Presidential Decree n. 263 of 29 October 2012, Regolamento recante norme generali per la ridefinizione dell’assetto organizzativo didattico dei Centri d’istruzione per gli adulti, ivi compresi i corsi serali, implementing Art. 64, comma 4, of Decree-Law n. 112 of 25 Juve 2008, n. 112, converted with amendment into the Law n. 133 of 6 August 2008. In GU No. 47, 25 February 2013.
- 30.
Art. 3 of Presidential Decree n. 263 of 29 October 2012.
- 31.
It has been pointed out that they could also be enrolled in secondary schools, so that they are «in are a sort of educational limbo». A third possibility is that the start of the courses at the CPIA is postponed until the age of 16, preceded by private social literacy courses.
- 32.
Testimony collected from Silvio Masin, director of the reception center for unaccompanied minors Comunità San Benedetto Opera Don Calabria in Verona.
- 33.
Art. 14, co. 3 of the Law n. 47/2017 (free translation by the Author): «The administrations concerned shall implement the provisions of this paragraph within the limits of the financial, instrumental and human resources available under current legislation and in any case without putting new or increased burdens on public finances».
- 34.
The Association for Juridical Studies on Immigration, in an operational document on the situation of unaccompanied foreign minors in light of the health emergency, has recommended to social services and guardians to apply for «prosieguo amministrativo» in advance, as soon as the requirements are met.
- 35.
Unaccompanied and separated asylum seeking and refugee children were specifically interviewed.
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Quadranti, I. (2021). The Right to Education of Unaccompanied Minors and the Persistence of an Education Gap in their Transition to Adulthood. In: Vissing, Y., Leitão, S. (eds) The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors. Clinical Sociology: Research and Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75594-2_7
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