Abstract
Makhanda (Grahamstown) is a small city that falls within the Eastern Cape Province. It was established in 1812 as a British military garrison and, assisted by the arrival of the 1820 Settlers, it quickly became an important civic and economic centre. The city formed a strategic defence post on the frontier between the warring Cape Colony and the amaXhosa people who had been driven over the Fish River. The city structure was somewhat typical of the settler-colonial, segregation and apartheid eras. In the post-apartheid period, the city has retained many of the spatial legacies of the past. Segregation indices, though improving, are still high and are maintained through socio-economic barriers to integration, limited housing stock and the impact of studentification on the property market. The city has also experienced several structural changes in the form of urban sprawl and densification, but these have done little to challenge the residential segregation of the apartheid era. The future of the city is unclear. Several strategies could be initiated to tackle the challenges that are faced in achieving a fair and functional city. These strategies include planning interventions like mixed-income residential settlements, decentralization of amenities, and improved public transport systems. Greater and more challenging issues of structural unemployment, inequality and the effects of post-Fordist capitalism on urban spaces present significant barriers to positive change. In addition, a struggling and dysfunctional municipality has meant that the delivery of basic services and the maintenance of key infrastructure are under threat. Good local governance and management will certainly be necessary ingredients in creating a positive future for the city.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
Plural of ‘erf’—a South African term for a plot of land.
- 2.
Former or ex-Model C schools designate public schools that served largely white communities during the transition to democracy era (1990–1994) and operate within a semi-private funding structure in the post-apartheid era.
- 3.
It is difficult to compare these values to those generated by previous censuses. Weir-Smith (2016) notes that conducting comparative studies of social indicators using census data in South Africa is complicated by the way in which data were collected and released. Changes to administrative boundaries between each census and the release of data in different spatial units are two of these issues (Weir-Smith, 2016). In Makhanda, this is further complicated by the fact that the spatial units used are not proportional to the size of the small city and, therefore, a level of detail is lost. The spatial scales of smaller settlements and the spatial proximity in which people live form part of this issue.
References
Ackermann, A., & Visser, G. (2016). Studentification in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Bulletin of Geography, 31(31), 7–17.
Baines, G. (1989). The control and administration of Port Elizabeth’s African population, c. 1834–1923. Contree, 26, 13–21.
Baines, G. (1990). The origins of urban segregation: Local government and the residence of Africans in Port Elizabeth, c.1835–1865. South African Historical Journal, 22(1), 61–81.
Blumenfeld, J., & Nuttal, M. (1972). Grahamstown Fingo Village: From poverty to paradise? Reality, 4(3), 15–19.
Charton, N., Cherry, J., Peterson, S., & Holleman, H. (1997). Graham’s town: The untold story: Asocial history and self-guided tour. Black Sash.
Christopher, A. J. (1994). The atlas of apartheid. Witwatersrand University Press Publications.
Christopher, A. J. (2001a). The atlas of changing South Africa (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2018/643.
Christopher, A. J. (2001b). Urban segregation in post-apartheid South Africa. Urban Studies, 38(3), 449–466.
Christopher, A. J. (2005). The slow pace of desegregation in South African cities, 1996–2001. Urban Studies, 42(12), 2305–2320.
Cleary, K. (2018, February 6). Residents, business owners tackle city potholes. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2018/02/06/residents-business-owners-tackle-city-potholes/.
Davenport, T. R. H. (1980). Black Grahamstown: The agony of a community. The South African Institute of Race Relations.
Davenport, T. R. H., & Hunt, K. S. (1974). The rights to the land. David Philip Publisher.
Donaldson, R., Benn, J., Campbell, M., & De Jager, A. (2014). Reshaping urban space through studentification in two South African urban centres. Urbani Izziv, 25(Special Issue), S176–S188. https://doi.org/10.5379/urbani-izziv-en-2014-25-supplement-013.
Donyeli, L. (2018, August 14). Vukani land grabs continue. Grocott’s Mail.
Dullabh, N. (1994). An examination of the factors influencing the spatial distribution of the Indian communities in Grahamstown, King William’s Town, Queenstown and Uitenhage from 1880 to 1991. Rhodes University.
ECSECC. (2017). Makana local municipality: Socio-economic review and outlook 2017. https://www.ecsecc.org/documentrepository/informationcentre/makana-local-municipality_67455.pdf.
George, Z., & Carlisle, A. (2018, May 10). The 15 Eastern Cape municipalities Nhlanhla Nene has lost patience over. Business Day. https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2018-05-10-the-15-eastern-cape-municipalities-nhlanhla-nene-has-lost-patience-over/.
Grahamstown Ratepayers. (1957). Grahamstown and group areas. http://disa.ukzn.ac.za/rep19570500037002001.
Gregory, J. J., & Rogerson, J. M. (2019). Studentification and commodification of student lifestyle in Braamfontein, Johannesburg. Urbani Izziv, 30(Supplement), 178–193.
Grocott’s Mail. (1970, March 26). Group areas proclaimed. Grocott’s Mail.
Grocott’s Mail. (2009a, May 22). Budget breakdown 2009/2010. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2009/05/22/budget-breakdown-20092010/.
Grocott’s Mail. (2009b, November 12). Student accommodation costs on the up. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2009/11/12/student-accommodation-costs-on-the-up/.
Grocott’s Mail. (2012, February 17). City’s infrastructure falling apart. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2012/02/17/citys-infrastructure-falling-apart/.
Grocott’s Mail. (2019, February 15). DWS funding water, sewerage upgrades in Makana. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2019/02/15/dws-fnding-water-sewage-infrastructure-upgrades/.
Hoho, B. (2010, September 6). Loan to be taken out to upgrade infrastructure. Grocott’s Mail.
Huchzermeyer, M. (2003). Low income housing and commodified urban segregation in South. In C. Haferburg & J. Ossenbrügge (Eds.), Ambiguous restructurings of post-apartheid Cape Town: The spatial form of socio-political change (pp. 87–115). LIT Verlag.
Hunt, K. S. (1958). The development of municipal government in the Eastern Province of the Cape of Good Hope with special reference to Grahamstown 1827–1862. Rhodes University.
Hunt, K. S. (1961). The development of municipal government in the Eastern Province of the Cape of Good Hope with special reference to Grahamstown, 1827–1862. Archives Year Book for South African History, 24.
International Monetary Fund. (2020). Six charts explain South Africa’s inequality. IMF Country Focus. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/01/29/na012820six-charts-on-south-africas-persistent-and-multi-faceted-inequality.
Irvine, P. M. (2012). Post-apartheid racial integration in Grahamstown: A time-geographical perspective. Rhodes University.
Kantrowitz, N. (1979). Racial and ethnic residential segregation in Boston 1830–1970. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 441(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/000271627944100105.
Kepe, T., McGregor, G., & Irvine, P. (2015). Rights of “passage” and contested land use: Gendered conflict over urban space during ritual performance in South Africa. Applied Geography, 57, 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.12.021.
Kingwill, R. (2014). Papering over the cracks: An ethnography of land title in the Eastern Cape. Kronos, 40(1), 241–268.
Klug, N., Rubin, M., & Todes, A. (2013). Inclusionary housing policy: A tool for re-shaping South Africa’s spatial legacy? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 28(4), 667–678.
Lemon, A. (1991). The apartheid city. In A. Lemon (Ed.), Homes apart: South Africa’s segregated cities (pp. 1–25). Indiana University Press.
Lemon, A. (2004). Redressing school inequalities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 30(2), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305707042000215392.
Machanik, P. (2020, January 21). Makana municipal mess up has lessons for local government. Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/opinion/2020-01-21-makana-municipal-mess-up-has-lessons-for-local-government/.
Maclellan, S. (2017, June 27). Concern over Grahamstown land grabs. Grocott’s Mail.
Maclellan, S. (2018a, September 7). Historic home in the spotlight. Grocott’s Mail. https://www.grocotts.co.za/2018/09/07/historic-home-in-the-spotlight/.
Maclellan, S. (2018b, October 11). Makhanda among 39 towns facing Eskom cuts. Grocott’s Mail.
Maclellan, S. (2020, March 5). Jail sentences for Mayor, Municipal Manager over landfill. Grocott’s Mail.
Makana Local Municipality. (2013). Makana spatial development framework.
Makana Local Municipality. (2018). Draft Makana municipality integrated development plan 2018–2019. http://www.makana.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/IDP-2018-2019-RII.pdf.
McDaniel, J. (1985). Grahamstown: Development and related problems. In J. B. M. Daniel, W. Holleman, & A. Guillarmod (Eds.), Grahamstown and its environs. Albany Museum.
Mngixtama, A., & Roux, K. (2013, November 5). Just another SA municipal story: Makana’s water cuts, unpaid salaries & billings from Hell. Daily Maverick. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-11-05-just-another-sa-municipal-story-makanas-water-cuts-unpaid-salaries-billings-from-hell/#gsc.tab=0.
Møller, V., Hees, C., Van, Pillay, E., & Tobi, A. (2001). Living in Grahamstown East/Rini: A social indicators report.
Muller, J. (2009, December 3). Varsity towns defy slump. Fin24.Com. https://www.fin24.com/Money/Property/Varsity-towns-defy-slump-20091127-2.
Muller, J. (2011, February 3). Digs in the money. Fin24.Com. https://www.fin24.com/Finweek/Money-clinic/Digs-in-the-money-20110131.
Ndimande, N. P. (2018). Student housing and the slummification of the University of Zululand village in KwaDlangezwa, South Africa. Human Geographies, 12(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.5719/hgeo.2018.121.2.
Nowicki, L. (2019, May 16). Gift of the givers pulls out of Makhanda. GroundUp.
Nowicki, L. (2020a, January 14). Court orders dissolution of Makana Municipality. GroundUp. https://www.groundup.org.za/article/court-orders-dissolution-makana-municipality/.
Nowicki, L. (2020b, May 22). High Court gives Makana Municipality tongue-lashing over attempt to appeal landmark verdict. GroundUp. https://www.groundup.org.za/article/high-court-gives-makana-tonguelashing-over-their-attempt-appeal-landmark-verdict/.
Nyalungu, P. (2017, September 11). Makana overwhelmed by ageing infrastructure. Grocott’s Mail.
Okechukwu Onatu, G. (2010). Mixed-income housing development strategy: Perspective on Cosmo City, Johannesburg, South Africa. International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 3(3), 203–215.
Ordor, U., Cattell, K., Mitchell, K., & Bowen, P. (2010). The effects of studentification on the residential neighbourhood of a university suburb: A study of the University of Cape Town in Rondebosch. CIB W070 International Conference in Facility Management, 543–556.
Parnell, S., & Crankshaw, O. (2013). The politics of “race” and the transformation of the post-apartheid space economy. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 28(4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-013-9345-6.
Pather, R. (2019, February 1). Makhanda’s thirst caused by inept officials and misrule. Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/article/2019-02-01-00-makhandas-thirst-caused-by-inept-officials-and-misrule/.
Peach, C. (Ed.). (1975). Urban social segregation. Longman.
Reynolds, R., & Reynolds, B. (1974). Grahamstown from cottage to villa. David Philip Publisher.
Rhodes University. (2017). Digest of Statistics Version 21: 2017.
Roodt, J. (2012). Socio economic specialist report: Belmont valley and existing Grahamstown golf course development.
Schnehage, M. (2013). Student housing: An investment opportunity? Moneyweb. https://www.moneyweb.co.za/archive/student-housing-an-investment-opportunity/.
Smit, S. (2020, January 17). Court dissolves local municipality. Mail & Guardian.
Smith, D. P. (2005). ‘Studentification’: The gentrification factory? In R. Atkinson & G. Bridge (Eds.), The new urban colonialism: Gentrification in a global context (pp. 72–89). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203392089.
Statistics South Africa. (2011). Makana. http://www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=4286&id=554.
Surplus People’s Project. (1983). Grahamstown: Fingo village, Coloureds and Indians. https://disa.ukzn.ac.za/rep19830100037004001b.
The Herald. (2020, May 29). Bhisho heads to SCA on Makana judgment. The Herald. https://www.heraldlive.co.za/news/2020-05-29-bhisho-heads-to-sca-on-makana-judgment/.
Todes, A. (2012). Urban growth and strategic spatial planning in Johannesburg, South Africa. Cities, 29(3), 158–165.
Turok, I. (2013). Transforming South Africa’s divided cities: Can devolution help? International Planning Studies, 18(2), 168–187.
Van der Merwe, R. (2016, August 1). Personal communication. Town planner, Makana Local Municipality.
Visser, G., & Kisting, D. (2019). Studentification in Stellenbosch, South Africa. Urbani Izziv, 30(Supplement), 158–177. https://doi.org/10.5379/urbani-izziv-en-2019-30-supplement-011.
Wase-Lenge, T. (2011, May 13). Gap housing needed. Grocott’s Mail. http://www.grocotts.co.za/content/opinion/letters/gap-housing-needed-13-05-2011.
Weaver, M. J. T., O’Keeffe, J., Hamer, N., & Palmer, C. G. (2017). Water service delivery challenges in a small South African municipality: Identifying and exploring key elements and relationships in a complex social-ecological system. Water SA, 43(3), 398–408. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v43i3.04.
Weir-Smith, G. (2016). Changing boundaries: Overcoming modifiable areal unit problems related to unemployment data in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 112(3–4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2016/20150115.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Irvine, P.M. (2021). From Grahamstown to Makhanda: Urban Frontiers and Challenges in a Post-apartheid City. In: Lemon, A., Donaldson, R., Visser, G. (eds) South African Urban Change Three Decades After Apartheid. GeoJournal Library(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73073-4_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73073-4_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-73072-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-73073-4
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)