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Motivation in the Classroom: Creating Effective Learning Environments: Introduction

There are numerous education studies globally, demonstrating the nexus between motivation and academic achievement (Weiner, 1984; Bandura, 1986; Russell et al., 2005; Meece et al., 2006; Overton-Healy, 2008; Daniels, 2010; Saeed & Zyngier, 2012; Liu & Hou, 2017; Wentzel, 2017; Zajda, 2018a; Tokan & Imakulata, 2019; Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2019). Recently, in their longitudinal study Liu and Hou (2017) demonstrated that that academic achievement motivation was significantly related to academic performance. Similarly, Alhadabi and Karpinski, (2019) demonstrated the nexus between self-efficacy, the positive relationships between mastery approach goals, and academic performance.

Yet, one of the most prominent teaching and learning problem today in schools globally is a lack of motivation among some students towards academic activities and performance (Legault et al., 2006; Daniels, 2010; Ford & Roby, 2014; Kelly, 2017; Zajda, 2021). For a number of reasons, be they cognitive, social and emotional, there are some students in schools around the world who have no desire or drive to complete different learning tasks that are required of them. Legault et al. (2006), in particular, noted this lack of motivation among high school students:

One of the most prominent academic problems plaguing today’s teenage youth is a lack of motivation toward academic activities. Year after year, for reasons yet to be understood, numerous high school students find themselves in a state in which they do not have the desire to carry out the academic tasks required of them…Indubitably, the absence of academic motivation can lead to feelings of frustration and discontentment and can encumber productivity and well-being. (Legault et al., 2006, p. 567)

Lack of motivation is a real and pressing problem in schools globally. Ford and Roby (2014) stated that many high school students find themselves lacking the desire to do academic task, because they feel that they ‘do not belong’:

They often times feel detached from their actions that cause them to lack motivation to complete their task. Many are bored in the classroom because they feel perhaps feel they “don’t belong” ….Moreover, they are lacking in academic background knowledge, they seem to get further and further behind and each year in high school brings another year of additional pressure, feeling they will never get “caught-up.” (Ford & Roby, 2014, p. 111)

Students’ engagement in the classroom is a ‘strong predictor of overall student achievement’ (Whelan, 2019). The more time students spend engaged in the classroom, the more they learn, and this will affect their identity, self-concept, self-esteem, and academic achievement.

Some studies have demonstrated that over 40% of high school students were chronically disengaged from school (Grotty, 2013). Saeed and Zyngier (2012) confirmed research findings that ‘disengaged students may do their work, but without interest and commitment, whereas, engaged students work hard and attempt to master their learning achieving the highest academic results’ they can obtain (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012, p. 262). Bandura (1986), on the other hand, using his social learning theory and his self-efficacy construct, proposed that motivation (or a lack thereof) is the result of an individual’s self-efficacy related to a task. Bandura defined self-efficacy as the beliefs we have about ourselves that cause us to make choices, put forth effort, and persist in the face of difficulty.

Previous PISA results have consistently shown that there is a positive association between students’ perceptions of the classroom disciplinary climate and students’ academic performance, even after accounting for socio-economic status (OECD, 2016). According to Benavot (2013), the PISA assessment of academic achievement has risen to strategic prominence in the international education policy discourse.

A positive disciplinary climate may also have benefits for other student outcomes, such as students’ sense of belonging at school (OECD, 2017). Already in the OECD (2009a, b, c) report, Creating effective teaching and learning environments, some of the key factors in developing motivational atmosphere and effective learning environments were analysed. These factors included classroom disciplinary climate and teachers’ self-efficacy. Research has demonstrated that classroom disciplinary climate is associated with student performance and that self-efficacy is an important measure of productivity and effectiveness (Ma & Willms, 2004; Sortkær & Reimer, 2016; OECD, 2009a, 2019a, b, c). The 2009 OECD report included teachers’ constructivist pedagogies, and both structured teaching practices and student-oriented teaching practices, as essential for establishing a motivational atmosphere and effective learning environments (OECD, 2009a).

Ford and Roby (2014) argued that the teacher’s attitudes, behaviour and teaching styles affected students’ level of motivation:

Teachers have a tremendous effect on motivating their students. The teacher’s behavior and teaching style, the structure of the course, nature of the assignment, and informal interactions with student s all have a definite effect on students’ motivation. (Ford & Roby, 2014, p. 112)

Research findings confirm that student motivation is one of the key factor in all successful learning and achievement in schools (Marinak & Gambrell, 2010; Zajda, 2018a; Souders, 2020). Overton-Healy (2008), argued that learning is a function of motivation, namely that for learning to occur ‘motivation must be evident’ and that creation of a ‘motivating atmosphere enhances the propensity for learning’ was necessary (Overton-Healy, 2008, pp. 2–3). For this reason, understanding student motivation and developing strategies to cultivate motivation and motivational atmosphere for all students at all levels of performance are essential to effective teaching (Ellsworth, 2009; OECD, 2009a, b, c; Brophy, 2010; Daniels, 2011; McInerney & McInerney, 2018; Rashid & Rana, 2019). Consequently, teachers have the opportunity everyday to make a positive difference in the lives of children (Rief & Heimburge, 2006). The way, in which teachers interact with their students, the motivational environment they create, learning activities they use, and motivational strategies they employ to teach greatly affect how motivated and successful their students will be. Motivation in education can have numerous positive effects on how students learn. It also impacts on students’ identity, self-esteem, attitudes, values and behaviour towards selected disciplines (Ellsworth, 2009; Zajda, 2018a, b, c, d).

It has been argued that motivating students in not an easy task (Arends & Kilcher, 2010; Zajda, 2018a, b, c, d). One of the immense challenges for teachers in the global culture is to make available an environment and atmosphere in the classroom that can arouse, inspire and enhance a student’s need and desire to learn (Theobald, 2006; Rashid & Rana, 2019; Zajda, 2021). This task is particularly complex because of the many social, cultural, cognitive, and emotional variables that affect a student’s attitude and motivation towards learning in the classroom.

Definition of Motivation

Various definitions of motivation, obtained from a variety of educational psychology textbooks, seem to reflect the consensus that motivation is an internal process, state or condition, sometimes described as a need, desire, or want, that serves to activate or energize behaviour and gives it direction. Slavin (2020), has defined motivation as ‘an internal process that activates guides and maintains behaviour over time’. Motivation is ‘what gets you going, keeps you going, and determines where you’re trying to go’ (Slavin, 2020). Woolfolk and Margetts (2019) define motivation as ‘an internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains behaviour’ (p. 347). In general, motivation is used to ‘explain the increase or decrease in the frequency and/or intensity of an individual’s goal-seeking behaviour’ (Svinicki & Vogler, 2012). Some of the key concepts in motivation include: traits, or an enduring characteristic, states, or a temporary condition, or feelings, anxiety, or feelings of tension, uneasiness, apprehension, and arousal, or alertness and attentiveness (Duchesne & McCaughey, 2020).

Furthermore, motivation can vary in both intensity and direction. For example, one student may be strongly motivated to play cricket, but not motivated to learn mathematics. Another student may be strongly motivated to learn to play violin rather than play football. Motivation can be linked to personality dimensions, such as ‘extroverts’, ‘introverts’ and ‘neurotics’ (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969; Eysenck & Wilson, 1976).

Research findings on motivation in the classroom, divide classroom motivation into two broad types: extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is an environmentally created condition for students to initiate or persist in an activity in the classroom, deriving from an external reward, praise, awards, money, or pleasing the teacher. Whereas, intrinsic motivation is arising within the student’s feelings of satisfaction or accomplishment, pleasure, and joy. It is also the natural tendency to engage one’s personal interests and demonstrate one’s skills, capabilities and achievement.

Students with intrinsic motivation tend to complete various tasks, because they see value and pleasure in the experience itself, rather than completing a task with the expectation of gaining external rewards. It is important therefore that students learn this and are encouraged to seek motivation from within themselves. To promote intrinsic motivation in the classroom it is important to set tasks that are mastery goal- orientated. Characteristics of these tasks that should be included when planning a unit of work consist of variety, diversity, challenge, personal control and meaningfulness.

Woolfolk and Margetts (2019), in theorising motivation, explain that motivational psychologists have focused on the following five questions:

  1. 1.

    What choices do people make about their behaviour?

  2. 2.

    How long does it take to get started?

  3. 3.

    What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity?

  4. 4.

    What causes a person to persist or to give up?

  5. 5.

    What is the individual thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity? (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019).

These questions are necessary to get started in creating motivational atmosphere and engagement in the classroom. However, we need to add such constructs as the self, self-esteem and self-efficacy, as well, as these are central to understanding the student’s identity, motivation and motivational atmosphere in the classroom. Academic achievement is determined not only by one’s intelligence and skill, but also by ‘how motivated one is to achieve the outcome’ (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019).

Contemporary Views of Motivation in the Classroom

There are numerous theories of motivation. Drawing on some popular educational psychology textbooks, which I have used successfully with my Master of Teaching students over the years, I would like to focus on the four major theories of classroom motivation, namely behavioural, cognitive, socio-cultural and humanistic, and discuss their classroom applications (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019; Duchesne & McCaughey, 2020).

Behavioural Theories of Motivation

Behaviourism or the behavioural learning theory is a concept that focuses on how students behave, how their behaviour can be changed, and how they learn. Behaviourism focuses on the idea that all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists claim that only observable behaviour can be measured objectively. A typical example of behaviourism, especially in behaviour modification approach, is the use of rewards, or positive or negative reinforcement. A student is rewarded with a token, for example a gold star, which I use frequently in my M. Teach seminars, if the task is completed correctly. Such a student is likely to work harder on another task to receive the reward. The concept of motivation plays a significant part in behavioural learning theory, which maintains that behaviours that have been reinforced are likely to be repeated (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slavin, 2020). Behavioural explanations of motivation are essentially based on the belief that behaviour is determined by reinforcement contingencies. If the cues that elicit specific behaviour can be identified, then appropriate reinforcement can be applied to encourage or discourage that behaviour, by the use of extrinsic rewards. In this approach, immediate rewards and reinforcement are important factors in the operant conditioning, or behavioural model of motivation.

In behavioural learning theory of motivation, I would like to focus on the two key concepts: operant conditioning and applied behaviour analysis (ABA). Operant conditioning was explored at length by Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. The learning process in operant conditioning indicates that we learn, as we operate on the environment. Operant conditioning refers to learning, in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences, in this case the use of rewards, as positive reinforcers. Thus, reinforced behaviour results in increase in frequency of desirable behaviour.

Operant learning focuses on changes in an individual’s observable behaviours. In operant conditioning, behaviour is impacted by new or continued consequences, and the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behaviour. The application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behaviour. In short, incentives, rewards and reinforcement are crucial to the success of behavioural approaches to motivation. Furthermore, it is essential that immediate rewards and reinforcement are applied in the operant conditioning (behaviourism) model of motivation for the model to work:

When you are working with very young children, continuous reinforcement is useful, particularly in the early stages of teaching a new skill. The problem with continuous reinforcement is satiation, when the reinforcer being used loses its appeal as a motivator. For this reason, alternative schedules, or different reinforcers, need to be used in order to maintain the momentum of learning. (Duchesne & McCaughey, 2020, p. 237)

This model is completely dependent on the use of rewards, as positive, or negative reinforcers. Without such rewards the model would not work (Skinner, 1953; Bandura, 1986; Beck 2004). Fontana (1995) believed that the level of motivation may suffer if children must wait ‘too long for the results of their work’ (Fontana, 1995, p. 151).

According to behaviourist view, motivation is simply the product of effective contingent reinforcement. Consequently, behaviourist psychologists emphasise the use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate student’s task engagement (Krause et al., 2018). For example, when children are rewarded with praise and a gold star for doing their math sums correctly they will look forward to their next mathematics lesson, as they anticipate further rewards. Behavioural theorists argue that explanations for motivation don’t have to include thoughts and feelings, since students are motivated purely by external events (Schunk et al., 2015). These external events direct behaviour and place an importance on positive and negative reinforcers to get individuals to behave in a desired way (Arends & Kilcher, 2010).

Positive reinforces, in the form of rewards, are intended to get individuals repeat preferred behaviours, while negative reinforcers are used to influence individuals to avoid particular behaviours (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). Almost all teachers use extrinsic reinforcement in some way to motivate their students, but they may not realize that they are not always use reinforcement correctly, or effectively (Akin-Little et al., 2004). Akin-Little et al. (2004) reported on their results from important meta-analytic studies, and concluded that little detrimental effect was found with the use of external reinforcement. By reinforcing academic achievement it ensures that the correct, desired behaviour continues. This, in turn, will motivate students to want to be engaged and to learn more. The use of extrinsic reinforcement may be the most significant reason to enhance engagement and performance in the classroom However, it may encourage surface, rather than deep or generic learning, as students expect to be rewarded for their work (Zajda, 2018a, b, c, d). Some general concerns that have been raised about the use of ‘reinforcement, punishment and token economies’. The main issue relates to the idea that the use of tokens and reinforcement weakens the ‘intrinsic desire of the child to learn, and increases dependency on an outside agent to foster learning’ (Duchesne & McCaughey, 2020, p. 241).

In order to change student’s attitudes and behaviour in the classroom, applied behaviour analysis (ABA) is also employed. ABA framework, or behaviour modification, is the application of behaviourism and behavioural learning principles to identify, and change behaviour, as needed. In this approach, in order to promote desirable behaviour, teachers use reinforcers and apply the intervention, such as praise, shaping etc. When teaching a ‘new behaviour involving actions that are unfamiliar to a student’, the techniques known as ‘shaping’, ‘chaining’, ‘cueing’, ‘prompting’, ‘modelling’ and ‘task analysis’ are tools for helping the student learn (Duchesne & McCaughey, 2020, p. 242).

B.F. Skinner, who used his operant conditioning to reinforce desirable behaviour, is regarded as the ‘father’ of applied behaviour analysis. In the classroom setting, by means of applied behaviour analysis technique, the student, with practice, is likely to cultivate and maintain desirable behaviours.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation were developed as an alternative to dominant behavioural theories of motivation, which were very influential in teaching during the 1950s and the 1960s. Unlike behavioural theories of motivation, cognitive theories of motivation focus on the mind, internal mental processes and their role in learning. The key idea of cognitive theories of learning, which is attributed to Piaget (1977), is that knowledge is ‘constructed by the learner and is informed and influenced by the learner’s previous experiences’ (O’Donnell, 2012, p. 61). Cognitive theories are based on the belief that thought processes control behaviour. Consequently, cognitive theories explain in detail, the way people process information, interpret meanings in particular situations and store information. By focusing on the categories and labels people use, in processing and storing information, in working memory and long-term memory, we can identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviours (Meyer & Turner, 2002). Meyer and Turner (2002) called for a new theoretical synthesis that integrates ‘emotion, motivation, and cognition as equal components in the social process of learning’ (Meyer & Turner, 2002, p. 107). Their research findings suggested that there was a far greater interaction between the learner, emotions, motivation and knowledge acquisition:

…the person and the context, such as cognition, motivation, and emotion, each could be viewed as contributing to the development of the other. Thus, they interact as one system, not as two. (Meyer & Turner, 2002, p. 107)

Neville (2013) also argued that since ‘cognition and emotion are fully integrated’ teachers need to pay more attention to the role emotions play in classroom life (Neville, 2013, p. 22).

Several of the most well researched and discussed theories of motivation have come from cognitive explanations of motivation that view the child as an innately active learner. These particular theories of motivation attempted to demonstrate the link between cognitive processes and academic achievement in schools (Bandura, 1986; Liu & Hou, 2017; Tokan & Imakulata, 2019). Cognitive processes have been extensively examined as sources of motivation or lack of motivation in schooling and some of these theories are explored below. There are at least four major types of cognitive theories of motivation: achievement motivation, self-worth theory of motivation, attribution and goal theories.

Achievement Motivation

The need for achievement or achievement motivation has been described as a ‘relatively stable personality disposition’ that drives some individuals to strive for success (McClelland, 1988). Earlier, Atkinson (1957) described achievement motivation as a learner’s tendency to approach success or avoid failure in the learning task. If there is a significant risk of failure in a task these students will not attempt it, but they may enjoy performing tasks otherwise. These students also usually focus on mastery or learning goals and are motivated to learn more and perform better. However, students who feel they need to avoid failure, in order to protect the ‘ego’ or the ‘self’, rather than having a need for success, are likely to select easy tasks, which will have a great deal of success, rather than failure. What teachers need to be aware of is that students can either be motivated by a strive for success or fear of failure, and that the choice students make will depend on which of these factors is strongest, because of their past experiences of success or failure (Christensen, 2001). It can lead to avoidance of challenging tasks through fear of failure, or can result in unhealthy competition among high need achievers (achieving motivation syndrome).

Consequently, teachers need to have a better knowledge and understanding as to why students behave in so many different ways, when learning to perform certain tasks and to help students to see that their mastery of a certain topic/concept is far more important than simply achieving the result on a particular test. Teachers also need to be aware of their own biases and how these might affect students, as well as accepting the significance of regular feedback on students’ work, as a key motivating factor on their performance, (Zajda, 2011, 2018a, b, c, d; Hamidun et al., 2013).

The Self Worth Theory of Motivation

The self worth theory of motivation originated and was later adapted from achievement motivation perspective. The self worth theory of motivation was used to account for the role of self worth in explaining students’ need to avoid failure and hence protect their self-concept and self-esteem. Applications of the self worth theory to motivation in the classroom require teachers to help students attribute their success and failures to internal causes, namely ability and effort, rather than external causes, such as luck and difficulty, as sometimes is the case (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). Teachers also need to recognise that motivating students to focus on increasing mastery skills, rather than performance goals, is more effective in developing high order learning and thinking skills. They also need to be aware of the need to provide accurate and credible feedback and be aware of their own biases and ways in which it could affect the way they attribute success and failure in individual students.

Attribution Theory of Motivation

This cognitive explanation of motivation focuses on the assumption that students try to understand their success and failure that influence their motivation and behavior. Bernard Weiner (1986, 2000), a prominent educational psychologist, was one of the main researchers to use his theory to explain the causes for success or failures. Weiner argued in his book that recent investigations have yielded insights concerning the nexus between emotions and motivation (Weiner, 1986). As a result, Weiner attempted to create an attributional theory of motivation that would explain the specific linkages between the structure of attributional thinking and qualitatively distinct emotional reactions, and to explain and specify the ‘relationships among cognition, emotion, and action’ (Weiner, 1986). He used the three factors below to explain his theory:

  • Locus of control; attributing success or failure to: internal (controllable) factors external (uncontrollable) factors

  • Stability: whether the cause stays the same or can change

  • Control: whether the learner can control the cause (see Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019).

Weiner believed that these three factors played an important role in motivation, as they affected expectancy and value. In general, internal and external factors in motivation are closely related to feelings of self-esteem. If success is attributed to internal factors, it will lead to pride, achievement, a greater feeling of control and increased motivation (Ames, 1992a; Weiner, 2000). Later, Weiner (2000) also examined attribution theories of motivation, in terms of an ‘intrapersonal theory’, which included ‘self-directed thoughts’, or particularly expectancy of success and ‘self-directed emotions’, such as pride, guilt, and shame (Weiner, 2000).

Ames (1992b), with reference to attributions factors affecting achievement, described a systematic intervention program, which aimed at fostering a mastery-goal orientation. It included six features of the classroom to stress a mastery-goal orientation:

  • task design

  • distribution of authority

  • rewards

  • grouping

  • evaluation

  • time allocation.

Research findings from Ames’s long-term project, demonstrated that the mastery climate of classrooms was increased when teachers implemented these features in the classroom.

Goal Theories of Motivation

The goal orientation theory of motivations focuses on mastery learning, and performance. Mastery goal theory of motivation deals with achieving mastery of a task or skill. Performance goals focus on performing well in a chosen area of achievement. When students want to read a book, play a piano, complete their homework, or study for a test, they are displaying ‘goal-directed behaviour’ (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019). Performance-approach goals represent individuals motivated to outperform others and demonstrate their superiority. Studies report that mastery-approach goals are associated with positive achievement outcomes, such as high levels of effort, interest in the task, and use of deep learning strategies (Senko & Harackiewicz, 2005; Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2019). Overall, goal success is influenced by the goal orientation, in which mastery-approach goals tend to be most likely to be successful. Alhadabi and Karpinski (2019) demonstrated that ‘grit’ or perseverance of effort and consistency of interest positively associated with academic performance, by means of self-efficacy and achievement orientation goals. Their findings supported the ‘positive relationships between mastery, approach goals, and academic performance’ (Alhadabi & Karpinski, 2019). Their model revealed that self-efficacy may play supportive and protective roles by increasing the positive effect of mastery and performance-approach goals.

With reference to goal theories of motivation, I would like to add the following three guiding principles of constructivist learning, namely:

  • Learners are active participants in their learning, and learning by doing, or experiential learning is central to constructivist leaning in practice (Howe & Berv, 2000)

  • Learners are self-regulated and they construct and monitor their learning, where meta-cognition plays an important role in meaningful learning.

  • Social interactions is essential for meaningful learning (Zajda, 2018a, b, c, d).

With reference to goal theories of motivation and achievement, it is important to add the concept of self-regulated learning (SRL), used by students to improve their performance in the classroom. SRL includes the cognitive, metacognitive, behavioral, motivational, socio-cultural, and emotional dimensions of learning. The causal relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) and academic achievement is relevant to all theories of motivation. The SRL concept explains and clarifies how learners construct and rationalise their academic achievement goals, and accept responsibility for ‘monitoring cognition, motivation and behaviour to realise their capabilities’ (Peel, 2019, p. 23).

Socio-Cultural Theory of Motivation

Socio-cultural theory of motivation, in contrast to behaviours and cognitive theories of motivation, emphasises active engagement and participation in the classroom. Students engage in activities and social interaction to develop their language skills, and consolidate their cultural identities. Lev Vygotsky believed that social interaction played a major role in the development of language and cognition (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory stressed that both social and cognitive aspects of human development reflected a socially mediated process, in which children acquired their values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues, in this case working in cooperative group settings in the classroom, and being defined and influenced by social constructivist pedagogy (Zajda, 2018b).

In the socio-cultural theory, students are motivated to learn if ‘they are members of a classroom or school that values learning’ (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2019). Students tend to observe other students and learn from their role models. Socio-cultural theory of motivation is also related to social cognitive theory, used in psychology, and education, which maintains that some parts of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary factor in both learning and motivation. In this view, the environment, an individual’s behaviour, and the individual’s characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions, and cognitive development) both influence and are influenced by each other two components. Bandura (1986, 1996) highlights self-efficacy (the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it) and self-regulation (the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and modification or redirection). Below is the concept map of social cognition and motivation:

Social learning theory also suggests that modelling, based on imitating significant others, and vicarious learning, or watching others have consequences applied to their behaviour, are important motivators of students’ behaviour. Social learning theorists such as Bandura (1977) questioned the behaviourist emphasis on extrinsic sources of motivation and instead saw motivation as a goal directed behaviour which is closely associated to feelings of personal effectiveness or self efficacy. Beliefs about our ability to reach a goal determine the amount of effort we will expend and for how long we will persist. The nature of the goal also influences our behaviour, and goals that are specific and moderately difficult and attainable in the not too distant future are most likely to stimulate effort and lead to increased efficacy expectations.

Social learning theory is now commonly defined as social cognitive theory which emphasises learning through observation of significant others. This theory suggests that modelling (learning as a result of observing others) and vicarious reinforcement (observing others have reinforcing consequences applied to their behaviour) are both major motivators of behaviour. Furthermore, social cognitive theory proposes that reciprocal determination is a significant element in both learning and teaching and is influenced and shaped by the three key factors: environment, behaviour and personal/cognitive behaviours (Santrock, 2008). Moreover, a model of self regulation has evolved from Bandura’s social cognitive theory. It occurs when students take responsibility for their own learning outcomes and are include the students’ self generated thoughts, feelings and actions for accomplishing desirable academic achievement goals.

Albert Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive theory (SCT) emphasized how cognitive, behavioral, personal, and environmental factors interact together to determine and influence levels of motivation and behavior (Crothers et al., 2008). Furthermore, according to Bandura (2005), human functioning is the result of the interaction among all three of these factors. also explained that social cognitive theory (SCT) demonstrates that individuals do not simply respond to environmental influences, but rather they actively seek and interpret information. Bandura argued that individuals ‘function as contributors to their own motivation, behaviour, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences’ (Bandura, 1999, p. 169). SCT continues to emphasize that learning occurs in a social context and that much of what is learned is gained through observation. According to Bandura (2005), ‘people are self organizing, proactive, self-regulating, and self reflecting. They are contributors to their life circumstances not just products of them’ (Bandura, 2005, p. 1).

Humanistic Theories of Motivation

The most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s humanistic needs hierarchy theory. Humanism is a philosophy is a pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil one’s potential. Maslow (1962), believed that there were five categories of human needs, which affected an individual’s behaviour: physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s, as a reaction against two dominant, over-scientific and de-humanizing psychological theories, namely behaviourism and Freudian psychoanalysis (Elkins, 2009). The aim of humanistic theory was education of the whole person – cognition, feeling and social interaction (Hein, 1975). In addition to Maslow, Carl Rogers (1961) was one of the most influential humanistic psychologists in American history, due to his contribution in many fields: education, psychology, counselling psychology, conflict resolution, and peace. Like Maslow, Rogers also believed that within nurturing environments, learners are free to learn, explore and reach their full potential. He believed that accepting and supporting the student, altering the self-concept, positive attitudes, and self directed behavior to achieve, and he coined the concept of ‘unconditional positive regard’ (Rogers, 1961). Unconditional positive regard is when a person (parents, and significant others) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is ‘not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake’ (McLeod, 2014).

Humanistic psychologists believed that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, social learning theory, social constructivism, motivation, and cooperative group learning are areas of particular interest in humanistic psychology. A humanist approach in the classroom will have a strong focus on students’ emotional wellbeing, feelings, and potential to achieve knowledge at the highest level self-actualization. A humanist teaching strategy will have at least three constructs used in teaching:

  1. 1.

    Free will: Learners have free choice to do and think what we want;

  2. 2.

    Emotions impact on learning: Learners need to be in a positive emotional state to achieve their best;

  3. 3.

    Intrinsic motivation: Learners generally have an internal desire to achieve their best.

Humanistic theories of motivations are needs-based views of motivation, namely satisfying the learner’s needs. The same person may have different needs at different times. The humanist theory of motivation is fascinating since it is not only associated with achievement education but also has connotations for students’ welfare and wellbeing through its interest with basic needs. Maslow (1954) perceived motivation as a hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow’s model needs drive behaviour and only when basic lower level needs have been satisfied will individuals be motivated to satisfy higher level or growth needs (Christensen, 2001). Individuals attach different levels of importance to each of these different needs and can also have different needs at different times (Slavin, 2020).

Humanist theories of motivation are concerned with general personal development, the actualisation of potential and the removal of obstacles to personal growth. Applications of humanist approaches to motivation in classroom surroundings require teachers to be conscious of students’ needs both within the classroom and students’ external environment, have positive expectations for each student, be conscious that students are more concerned over other needs rather than the demands of the school curriculum and that students with low self esteem are not motivated to make every effort for higher levels of achievement. Hungry, tired students will not have the energy to become involved in class activities. Pupils who are frightened or worried will not be able to develop the confidence to participate or be creative. Homeless, traumatised or abused children also face difficulties because the need for basic needs interferes with higher needs.

Furthermore, it is important for teachers to teach in a way which helps students to satisfy their needs such as self determination, and to experience the need for achievement and affiliation (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). Teachers also need to be aware that this approach positively identifies hierarchy of human needs, which influence behaviour, and which schools need to address, in order to satisfy students’ basic needs, such as food and security (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). However, teachers also need to understand that humanistic pedagogy can be time consuming, as the approach relies on fulfilling individual students’ needs and each student needs could be different. Hence, implementing humanistic pedagogy in the classroom is likely to take a good deal of time and patience (Christensen, 2001).

Humanistic psychologists also believed that we should pay more attention to emotions and ensure that our students are feeling safe, that they belong—in a positive, relaxed and comfortable environment. Humanistic psychologists argued that other dominant educational theories, like behaviourism, cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives tended to ignore the major role of emotions in learning and motivation.

Application of Motivational Approaches in the Classroom

Overall, motivational theories highlight the positive impact of motivation on students’ achievement, self-confidence and independence as learners. Teachers need to recognise the range of student needs, individual differences, cultural diversity, and students’ physical and personal well-being, as well as students’ perception of the links between effort and success.

Behavioural Approaches to Motivation

Applications of behavioural approaches to motivation in the classroom settings require teachers to use contingent rewards and punishment to reinforce student achievement so that desired behaviour is recurring, and to keep in mind that reinforcement to increase this behaviour motivates additional learning of this type and that student motivation is formed by prior reinforcing encounters. Teachers also need to understand that even though these approaches can have a positive impact on student motivation issues have been raised about the overuse and overall misuse of extrinsic rewards. To apply behavioural approaches to motivation in classroom settings, teachers need to:

  • contingently reinforce students’ achievements to ensure that desired behaviour is repeated

  • remember that reinforcement to increase desired behaviour motivates further learning of this type

  • recognise that student motivation is shaped by previous reinforcing experiences

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

With reference to the use of cognitive view of motivation, teachers need to be aware of the following factors:

  • Need to understand the underlying factors in students’ behaviour, studying students carefully and using a variety of information sources to discover why students behave as they do;

  • realise that motivating students by focusing on increasing mastery is more effective than emphasising performance goals;

  • be aware of their own biases and how these might affect the way they attribute success and failure in individual students;

  • recognise that constant feedback given to students is essential as it will have a significant impact on the ways students attribute their performance on a learning task.

Social Learning Approaches to Motivation

The social learning approach suggests that teachers need to

  • ensure that learners experience success, not just failure;

  • remember that self-evaluation is influenced by observing others’ achievements, and by persuasion and high arousal in challenging situations;

  • recognise that motivation is affected by learners’ judgements about their own self-worth and efficacy.

Humanist Approaches to Motivation

To apply humanist ideas in classrooms, teachers need to:

  • become more concerned with the wider implications of student welfare, not just with students’ education

  • be aware that some students are more concerned with feelings of safety; belonging and self-esteem than with the demands of the school curriculum

  • recognise that students with low self-esteem will not be motivated to strive for higher levels of achievement.

The strengths of this approach are that it identifies hierarchy of human needs that influence behaviour. However, humanist approach to motivation in the classroom could be regarded as inefficient and time-consuming by teachers, who are influenced by the efficiency regime in schools. As the humanistic theory of motivation, or needs-based approach, focuses on maximizing the fulfilment of individual needs, it may be difficult to implement in the classroom, due to time-constraints. Furthermore, a concept like ‘self-actualisation’ is difficult to define in any culture.

Discussion

Some aspects of motivational theories, as analysed above, especially behavioural theory of motivation, may have a limited impact on learners. These include the use of extrinsic rewards in behavioural theories. Such rewards are likely to produce in students a surface, or superficial learning, rather than meaningful, deep and reflective learning. As Khillar, (2020) explains, surface learning is a ‘passive approach to learning’ where the students tend to learn only what is required for passing a test:

Surface learning, as the name suggests, is a rather passive approach to learning where the students tend to learn only what is required and nothing more. It is a superficial approach to learning which simply involves scraping the surface of the material being studied and concentrating only on the assessment requirements without getting into the details. The surface learners tend to work in isolation and see learning as coping with tasks, as opposed to deep learners who seek to understand meaning. The surface learners concentrate only on assessment requirements with the only intention of passing the exams or test. (Khillar, 2020)

The use of extrinsic rewards, rather than intrinsic rewards and a resultant fear of failure in some students may lead them to avoid performing difficult or challenging tasks. To motivate a learner to achieve in the classroom, one needs to think of the learner’s identity, self-esteem, self-efficacy, cultural background, cognitive development, emotional maturity, and internal needs, desires, and rewards.

There is no magic formula to motivate all students. Strategies to increase student motivation could be divided into two key areas. Firstly, helping students change their attitudes and perceptions and secondly modifying classrooms and teaching methods (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). Helping students change their attitudes and perceptions could involve: focusing on controllable and alterable factors, helping students alter their views about success and failure, using language to develop self-efficacy and agency and paying attention to students’ goals and goal orientations. Modifying classroom and teaching methods could involve: using a balance of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, designing lessons built on students interests and intrinsic values, creating safe classrooms, planning lessons to satisfy students needs, teaching to students’ strengths, structuring learning experiences to improve learning, emphasising cooperative goals and reward structures and teaching with authenticity and passion (Arends & Kilcher, 2010).

Overall, we need to create a positive and engaging motivational atmosphere in our classrooms, where all students feel that they belong, that they are appreciated as human beings, that they work in a safe and inclusive environment, and where they want to achieve and participate in meaningful learning activities. The six factors for creating a positive motivational atmosphere are:

  • challenge

  • freedom

  • respect

  • warmth

  • control

  • success

Effective classroom strategies, addressing various dimensions of motivation, would need to include competence, control/autonomy, interest/value, and relatedness (Center on Education Policy, 2012, p. 6). Review of current research on aspects of student motivation and efforts to improve demonstrates several relevant cross-cutting themes:

Student motivation is not a fixed quality but is something that can be influenced in positive or negative ways by schools, parents, and communities and by individuals’ own experiences.

Research offers lessons on how and why students are motivated and what types of policies and practices hold promise for improving motivation.

No single strategy will work to motivate all students. Motivation varies, not only among students but also within the same student depending on the task and context. Motivating students often requires a combination of strategies that address the specific reasons why a student has become disengaged from school. (Usher, 2012, p. 7)

Saeed and Zyngier (2012) research findings demonstrated that ‘good teacher-student relationship; clear instructions; group work; giving choice, planning engaging and interesting learning activities; and making learning important and valuable to students’ all result in promoting and enhancing student motivation and engagement in their learning (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012, p. 262). Furthermore, as Meyer and Turner (2002), suggested earlier, major theories of human development, such as Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory and Vygotsky’s (1978) socio-historical theory demonstrate the nexus between cognition, environment and emotions: ‘Just as cognitions are constructed as part of social interactions, so too can motivations and emotions’ (Meyer & Turner, 2002, p. 112).

The Spiral Model of Motivational Theories

Based on the above discussion of motivational theories, I would like to propose a new model, combining all four motivational theories: behavioural, cognitive, socio-cultural and humanist. I will use my spiral curriculum, as a concept map, and place all four motivational theories in it. At the centre of this dynamic and pulsating spiral will be behavioural motivation theory, followed by the other theories. Each level of the spiral will contain major motivational theories. The advantage of the motivation spiral curriculum model concept map is that it has all four motivational theories interacting, engaging and pulsating, affecting individuals in specific and different ways, according to their identities, the self-concept, cognitive, social and affective domains, needs, desires, academic achievement goals, and cultural capital. This model also suggests that motivational theories are epistemologically interlinked, intersecting behavioural, cognitive, socio-cultural and humanistic models of motivation, and go beyond traditional conceptual models of motivational theories, with clearly defined semantic borders. In other words, depending on a particular need and strategy, we can use relevant elements of the motivation spiral curriculum model and theories in classroom pedagogy.

Conclusion

There exists a consensus in education research globally, that teachers, in terms of their attitudes, beliefs, values, knowledge, skills and self-efficacy have a powerful influence on motivating their students to learn and perform better. Whatever the source of motivation affecting students to perform in the classroom, whether intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, as a teacher it is immensely important to influence and motivate students to learn better and to improve academic achievement, so they eventually become intrinsically, rather than extrinsically motivated. As demonstrated earlier, no single strategy will motivate all students. This is due to variations of levels and intensity of motivation, not only among students, but also within the same student, depending on the task and context. Performing students tend do set for themselves personally challenging goals. However, they also need to focus more on the task itself, rather than the outcome, or the result. It is essential to engage, empower, motivate and inspire students so they can adapt and improve in academic achievement, and become lifelong learners. Furthermore, classroom strategies to improve motivation and academic achievement should be implemented carefully and thoughtfully, addressing individual and cultural differences and learning styles. In order to enhance their academic achievement, motivated students should aim to become independent learners, using self-regulated learning strategies and taking responsibility for their own learning. Finally, to motivate students to learn and to achieve desirable performance standards in the classroom, one needs to be aware of many factors influencing students’ desire to learn. These include a mixture of behavioural, cognitive, affective and social development factors, as well as the student’s identity and personality, cultural background, emotional maturity, internal needs, aspirations, and academic achievement goals.