Keywords

1 Introduction

Blockchain technology is indeed an online blockchain technique that enables a business with knowledge and lets it securely record its transactions. The ledger becomes encrypted, so contact between some of the organization and the peer-to-peer network can only really be achieved when something is checked in this field. Blockchain seems to be the easiest way to move information from A to B without thinking about the accumulated incorrect information in the ledger, since this would invalidate millions and examples of the entire chain. This framework ensures transparency, as the transactions that are reported are only checked by several parties, and no transaction in the ledger can be reversed at a later point by the party candidates. The technology behind the decentralized blockchain Bitcoin, created by a person known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008, is also known as blockchain. In a nutshell, built on a peer-to-peer network, the blockchain is briefly clarified as a transparent, trusted, and decentralized ledger. The whole new technology has also been a hot topic for researchers recently and has been promoted beyond Bitcoin to innovate blockchain-based applications. Decentralization is the main concept of the blockchain network, which suggests the blockchain is distributed over a node network. Each node has the ability to verify the behavior of other network entities, as well as the ability to make, authenticate, and validate the new transaction that is to be registered in the blockchain. With the benefits of tamper resistance and no single-point failure vulnerabilities, this decentralized architecture guarantees stable and safe blockchain operations [1, 2].

Some main components, including data block, distributed ledger, consensus, and smart contracts, are constructed from a blockchain network. To be transparent, each block contains a number of transactions and is connected via a hash label to its immediately previous block. In this way, it is possible to trace all blocks in the chain back to the previous one., and no alteration or alternation to block information is possible. A distributed ledger is a kind of database that is shared and replicated between peer-to-peer network entities. In addition, blockchain consensus is a mechanism used to reach agreement among multiple insecure nodes on a single data block, helping to ensure security in a blockchain network (Fig. 1). Finally, smart contracts are programmable systems that function on a blockchain network in compliance with predefined contractual conditions such as terms of payment, liens, confidentiality, and even regulation. The parties involved in the transaction validate each transaction. These transactions are often referred to as “blocks.” After each party verifies the transaction, the transaction involved is solved by a mathematical puzzle and inserted into the ledger chain. No other person may make an adjustment to the entry until any entry in the transaction is made. This makes it secure and genuine for the transaction. Originally designed for digital currencies such as Bitcoin, blockchain is now used to distribute digital knowledge (not for copying the technology).

Fig. 1
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Block transaction methods in node variables

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Blockchain origins: Blockchain technology is a sort of distributed architecture that uses signed transactions that are cryptographic. It functions in a blockwise manner. Cryptographic systems are connected to each block [2, 3]. The validity of the transactions at each single point of failure should be validated and evaluated. It uses some peer-to-peer (P2P) model characteristics. The broker fees for approving the transactions are not incurred by this model (Fig. 2). Because this blockchain process provides its end systems with robust and scalable protection, blockchain technology is inclined to develop. Hackers also find it hard to hack the transaction systems’ vulnerabilities. The transactions are, therefore, simpler and open to access. The basic components of the blockchain P2P architecture are presented.

Fig. 2
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Layer representation of blockchain

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Hashes: One of the key components of the blockchain model that adopts multiple use cases is hashes. The primary task is to encrypt the blocked information provided. Any size of data is computed. Changes made in the input can be seen in the output with the changes defined. For several real-time applications, the SHA-256 algorithm is extensively used [4, 5].

2 Open Chain Access Protocol

An abstract layer for accessing underlying blockchains is given by our open-source protocol. Our Open Chain Access Protocol allows the application to operate on multiple blockchains, similar to an ODBC or JDBC interface to a collection of databases. Chain connectors can be created by the group and encouraged by the reward process. And there is no need to modify the business logic or work with multiple chain technologies. This will allow more blockchain protocols to be supported and begin to progress [6].

2.1 Blocklet

For executing different types of applications, blocklet is a part of the serverless computing architecture. For intelligent contracts, oracles, resource and asset handling, and off-chain business logic, use blocklet. By means of the Open Chain Access Protocol, blocklet interacts with blockchains and can be coordinated with our Algorand-based consensus algorithm. Anyone can use blocklet to create and contribute services and components under the incentive scheme. Group participants will earn tokens when their donations are used by others [7].

2.2 Components of Blocklet

Blocklet components are prebuilt blocklets that shape ArcBlock platform’s base. Most of the features of ArcBlock are introduced with them (such as its token services, user identification services, etc.). Blocklet modules are incredibly customizable and interchangeable.

To get back up and running, integrate our prebuilt blocklet components into your applications. We include user information management elements, utility tokens, wallets, messaging systems for notification, and more. Use these out of the box or as flexible starting points for your own designs. The group may also build and donate blocklet element [8].

2.3 Computing with Services in the Cloud

Instead of a local server or a personal computer, cloud computing offers computing resources such as storage, databases, networking, and data processing over the Internet. It is often referred to as the “cloud.” Here the cloud serves as an Internet metaphor. The cloud services you use are cost-effective, and the cloud computing scheme is used by major banks around the world to solve their data processing problems [9].

2.4 Ledgers

This consists of the transaction collection. Each node has transaction copies, i.e., ledger . In traditional model, pen and paper are commonly used for maintaining the ledgers. With the help of computer technology, the same principle has been applied and thus centralized.

The ledger is used with certain demerits, such as a single failure point, i.e., sudden loss of data and centralized committed transaction checks with a third-party agent [10].

2.5 Blocks

A transaction ID provided by end users is received by each node in blocks . The additional operations are carried out with this transaction index before the process ends. In the transactional phase, the mid-ops will not be saved. A transaction pool, the queue for all committed transactions, is maintained. At any step, mining nodes are responsible for updating the transaction process. Therefore, a block is composed of a complete transaction collection, including the non-valid transactions[11].

The blockchain mechanism rejects transactions. This method confirms the rigidity of the data, as a change in a single bit of the block will drastically change the created hash. In addition, in order to improve protection, a copy of the hash of every block is shared among all the nodes. Because any node can check whether the hash matches , this method prevents any changes [12].

2.6 Cloud of Things

Nowadays, thanks to its great potential to offer exciting services across diverse applications, IoT has become a fundamental part of the future Internet and has gained growing interest from academics and industries. Heterogeneous devices and objects are seamlessly integrated by IoT to create a physical environment where sensing, processing, and communication processes are automatically applied without human intervention. However, because of the limited power and storage resources of IoT devices, vast amounts of data generated from a large number of devices in current IoT systems are a bottleneck in ensuring the desired quality of service (QoS). Meanwhile in terms of storage and processing capacity, cloud computing has infinite resources that can provide IoT realms with on-demand, effective, and efficient services. The integration of cloud computing with IoT, in particular, paves the way for a new paradigm like CoT that can empower both worlds. Indeed, IoT systems benefit tremendously from the abundance of resources available on the cloud, while the cloud can gain more prominence in real-life applications by integrating with IoT platforms. In addition, with minimal management effort, high system efficiency, and service availability, CoT can transform current IoT service provision models. IoT sensors are used to feel and gather data from local environments in this hierarchy. However, IoT devices can send recorded data to the cloud for data acquisition due to their limited computing resources. A strong data processing capability can be supported by cloud computing [13].

3 Cloud Computing Works

A computer dashboard is supported by cloud computing services, making it easier for IT professionals and developers to coordinate their manpower and efficiently manage business accounts. Actually, cloud services are developed to function with command line interfaces and REST APIs. Cloud computing operates on a conventional database architecture in which all the participants involved store the data on the servers. Restrictions, cross-compatibility difficulty, availability of services, and comparable costs can be obstacles on the flip side (Fig. 3). Although companies can breathe a little easier by removing licenses and the in-house configurations’ portability issues, some problems still need to be addressed. For now, a widely available application for web or mobile apps, IoT, cloud-based BI data insights, and automated cloud services appears to be serverless. A transformative method to computing is demonstrated by the complete dependency on third-party hosts and microservices running with ready-made code. As the word suggests, the ultimate aim of server less is to remove the activity from on-premise to hosted facilities such as the cloud and substitute bundled functions for backend operations. Serverless seems to be able to improve “real-time testing ” in a short time [14].

Fig. 3
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Various devices connecting with blockchain model

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4 Blockchain’s Best Features for Corporations

Blockchain is an incorruptible online economic transaction ledger that can only be programmed by validation from any participating party. Data is handled by a cluster of computers which are not controlled by a single entity, so that the information submitted is not corruptible [15].

In addition, because blockchain has broker-free functionality, there are no excessive fees that the parties involved in the transaction incur. When handling the blockchain transaction, companies incur no transaction costs other than paying for the technology architecture, so it can be a more cost-effective option for corporations than cloud computing [16].

Blockchain is able to disrupt many sectors, as it can be used not only to store financial transactions but also to manage the company’s intellectual property and produce smart IP.

Blockchain attracts many industries for its possible applications in a technology-heavy world, as many kinds of information can be applied to the blockchain, ranging from blockchain networks to any sort of contractual information [17].

With blockchain, it is possible to store information about any or all of the intellectual property recorded, as well as any trademarks, designs, or patents that are still at the stage of registration or in the event of a dispute between the parties.

As the information stored cannot be changed, it can be used in any of the cases of trademark infringement or patent infringement faced by the proprietor after registration.

The IP register would also promote and establish an immutable record of events for the entire life of the intellectual property if registries start using the method. In the administration of patent registration and during patent evaluation, this can be extremely helpful [18, 19].

4.1 Risks and Benefits of Going Serverless

Serverless computing’s most obvious threats include the inability to manage the client-side computing infrastructure, thereby restricting the reach of authoring tools. Additional limitations can be implemented by the cloud service provider (CSP) that circumvents the applicability of particular use cases. Further security issues can involve public clouds dealing with many customers (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
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Cloud platform connection with layering management

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As the consumer does not perform checks on hosted services directly, enforcement can be a major concern. Certain organizations can also prefer a server-based architecture for proprietary studies.

It can be a hassle and time-consuming effort if a customer needs a CSP switchover.

Unique tasks can include other applications from third parties, raising the overall cost of a CSP’s provision of services.

As early as 2008, several common FaaS services were in use such as AWS Lambda and MS Azure. For serverless, this was an obvious issue as too many function calls will boost the cost of services unless users are cautious about their requests.

The advantages of serverless computing include:

  • Scalability: Auto-scalability is provided in most serverless settings, rendering scalable solutions an absolute science.

  • Agility: CSPs build systems that in short release cycles and produce solutions.

  • Faster time to market: In-house teams do not have to wait for massive investments and costly IT processes to turn their innovations into marketable solutions.

  • Disaster Response Time: Recovery is almost immediate after an outage, which decreases costs and effort.

    With FaaS

    FaaS : From server farms to serverless computing, the key distinction among server-based and serverless computing is that organizations can now pay for billable requirements in the context of functions rather than always executing in-house code. The most lucrative aspect of serverless computing is that it really brings all the issues out of managing and controlling the infrastructure and related infrastructure, leaving the emphasis on requesting FaaS services appropriately.

It can take a little getting used to, but in the end, business users can get ready-made solutions to their everyday business issues without having to think about complicated IT configurations. For those organizations that have already chosen cloud for BI or other unique needs, serverless adoption rates could be higher [20].

5 Application of Blockchain in Cloud Computing

Popular users have been attracted by recent advances in information management systems to better store their data. The modern era of cloud computing is used by cloud users as a utility model. Depending on their properties, the cloud users can connect, share, or communicate the data anywhere, anytime. This implicitly means that after being uploaded to the cloud server, cloud users do not even have direct control over services. The cloud provider provides services as such and as available on the basis of terms and conditions. When we dive deeper into the information age in terms of length, speed, and variety of data on the Internet, a huge increase can be observed. Data may come from different types of sources, including mobile devices, sensors, files, and social networks (Fig. 5). This type of data explosion raises serious research questions such as how to handle vast volumes of data effectively and optimally and consider the new ways of unlocking knowledge preservation. Millions of transactions consisting of critical, heterogeneous, and homogeneous data are being generated that do not compromise the quality of end-user service. Challenges remain in supporting information processing units in various financial markets to build next-generation financial technologies for the safe use of network infrastructure and user communications. In order to deal with financial stability, blockchain technology has been implemented. It is defined as a network of public ledgers that offer better secured online transactions. The transaction process is mainly carried out via the authentication process through the blockchain principle, where the customer conducts virtual transactions. This block is constantly updated and mirrored in the details of the electronic money transaction to share the current block of transaction details [21].

Fig. 5
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Evaluation of blockchain milestone

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5.1 Bitcoin Concept

  1. (a)

    Initially , fresh transactions are broadcast to so many nodes.

  2. (b)

    The new transaction is collected by each block point.

  3. (c)

    Proof of work should be allocated to any block.

  4. (d)

    If node-based proof of work is found, then broadcast messages are sent to all nodes in that block (Fig. 6).

  5. (e)

    Only valid, rather than expended, transactions are processed.

  6. (f)

    Nodes, centered on their cryptographic facilities, accept the blocks.

Fig. 6
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Graphical representation of various domains on Bitcoin

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To apply the blockchain into cloud systems, there are two methods available:

  1. (a)

    Blockchain integration with the cloud to enable enterprise networks such as storage

  2. (b)

    Blockchain replication [22, 23]

5.2 Transactional Database Access and Permission

  1. (a)

    Alignment between mission , user, and data management in clouds with security principles

The issues and specifications involved in facilitating cloud-based blockchain transactions are as follows:

  1. (a)

    In view of security: data is shielded from the user and stored in data centers. Therefore, for tuning purposes, transactional operations should be allocated. This implies that the cloud service enables its users to have control over the places where their information is stored and processed.

  2. (b)

    System reliability and fault tolerance: the system should be able to locate an alternative node if there is a network failure of either node, thus, in data centers, a node replication process and the use of several software applications.

  3. (c)

    Protection for blockchain improvements: In distributed cloud environments, apps should be centrally delegated , and multiple software applications should be used [24, 25].

6 Blockchain-as-a-Service Expedites Land-Based Applications

The integration of blockchain and cloud computing would minimize blockchain implementation costs effectively. Pre-configured networks, traditional blockchain infrastructure, similar information security, distributed lower business-reliable monitoring logic, similar node connection logic, etc. seem to be, on the one hand, embedded and differentiated as blockchain services to serve various customers in the upper application layer. Fast development of cloud computing blockchain services will carry out rapid verification of concepts and model feasibility. Cloud computing paid by use on the other hand allows the use of basic infrastructure resources or adapts to meet the actual requirement to speed up the development phase of software, minimize implementation costs, and satisfy the service request in the potential blockchain community of start-ups, academic institutions, open-source groups, alliances, and financial institutions (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
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Fields of blockchain collaboration with cloud computing

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Blockchain collaborated with cloud technology to build blockchain-as-a-service (BaaS), based on the three types of services currently offered by cloud computing (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS). BaaS network operators aim to offer better blockchain services to customers, such that BaaS network operators pay more attention to linking vertical businesses than providers of blockchain infrastructure technology to provide fair reference implementation models, effective account system capital and performance management system, and personalized data analysis and performance reports [26].

6.1 Computing Serverless

Serverless computing is an application built for cloud computing in which the cloud provider handles the assignment of computing resources continuously. Most serverless vendors provide platforms that execute application programs but do not collect information for computational runtimes or act as a service (FaaS).

Including blockchains, serverless computing frameworks also work well. Most of the blocklets can be introduced as a serverless program. Use AWS Lambda, Windows Azure Functions, or another serverless execution environment to handle blocklets. Remember that various levels of abstraction include microservice architecture and serverless computing. A microservice that perfectly suits into a virtualized environment can be introduced by serverless computing. Development teams however can leverage serverless computing for many other purposes as well, and the use of serverless technology to incorporate microservices is not always necessary [27, 28].

Changing the blockchain topology to a transaction-based directed acyclic graph (DAG) is the first type of high-performance solution. Under this topology, the whole network is confirmed by the broadcast to form a transaction network after the transaction request is initiated. There is no packaging process, and it is possible to strip the transaction from the network or merge it back together. There is no block definition for DAG-based designs, and expansion is not constrained by block size (Table 1). The scalability depends on the bandwidth of the network, the speed of CPU processing, and the limitations of storage capacity. This topology tackles security concerns, issues of high competitiveness, problems of scalability, and problems of data growth and adapting to micropayment scenarios [29].

Table 1 Classification of serverless computing
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7 The Current Blockchain Situation

Blockchain is acknowledged by several nations who are pursuing the popularization and implementation of technology in many fields. On January 25, 2019, Innovate UK employees said that the United Kingdom will spend 19 million to help emerging products or services such as blockchain in nascent technology fields. On February 12, 2019, in the United States, the second blockchain hearing was held by the House of Representatives, and a consensus was reached on the concept of these technologies: it should not be promoted but smothered. The Bank of Korea supports blockchain technology, and the only South Korean stock exchange, Korea Exchange (KRX) , has also announced the launch of a blockchain technology-based trading platform. Blockchain technology is currently being pursued in Australia in different fields. And blockchain technology has already been applied by Australian Post to identity recognition. The Global Blockchain Committee and a coalition of over 30 members have been established in Dubai, including Cisco, blockchain start-ups, and the government of Dubai [30,31,32].

8 Improve the Blockchain Development Policy Climate

The effect of the blockchain on the security of personal information and cross-border data flow will be extensively studied, and the regulatory concerns of the blockchain will be addressed in the underlying core technology, mid-level application logic, and top-level information management and control. And we will actively encourage the disclosure of information by the blockchain system participants, create a compliance evaluation and audit process for smart contracts, and promote self-discipline in the industry. At the same time, relevant blockchain policies and laws and regulations should be studied, and in order to create a good environment for the healthy development of the industry, the supervisory mechanisms and certification systems for the technology and application of the blockchain should be explored [33,34,35,36].

Bitcoin Provides Proof of Authenticity in a Weak Form: Since the blockchain of Bitcoin is an irreversible ledger, it can be considered that proof of authenticity should be simple. For example, a manufacturer could log the authenticity certificate’s cryptographic fingerprint to the blockchain and provide a reference ID to the reseller/customer that allows the reseller/customer to see the authenticity certificate on the blockchain (Fig. 8). The issue is that Bitcoin is an open ledger and fingerprint content can be fed by anyone, even counterfeiters [37].

Fig. 8
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Traffic record in yearwise

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9 Decentralized Approaches and Challenges Faced Based on Blockchain

Some approaches include ensuring that the correct incentivization strategy is in effect for resource providers by establishing equal allocation of revenue and keeping the technology scalable, taking into account the existing scalability limitations of blockchain infrastructures. Machine testing is done correctly to avoid future malicious attacks (i.e., a provider claiming to have provided the service without effectively doing it). Some ventures use methods of reputational management, but these methods need to provide the right balance between the weight of reputations and the cost of market entry (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9
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Data access with centralized and decentralized computing

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Use trusted oracles*, since true sight by natural environment is not decentralized. In the event of premeditated users or other (common) inconvenience, there are centralized suggestions for immortals that could alleviate the confidence problem of managing the right to erase data [38, 39].

9.1 Decentralized Cloud Solutions Focused on Blockchain

Cloud computing has traditionally been developed by creating virtual machines, emulations that make it more difficult to operate on hardware, which is definitely one computer but appears to be several separate computers [40,41,42]. It takes a lot of device resources (CPU and RAM) for virtual machines to run, minutes from start, and complicated resource management for software creation. Containerization, on the other hand, only virtualizes a computer’s operating system, in order to allow distributed applications to run on each implementation without launching an entire virtual machine (VM). It takes only seconds for containers to start as well as the underpinning orchestration mechanism, which further continues the interrelationships and interactions between cloud infrastructure workloads and allows for easier and faster management of resources for software development. Furthermore, TEE, including Intel SGX, allows an implementation to be executed inside graphics card communities or memory-protected execution areas that increase security even on compromised platforms. This infrastructure can testify to the useful calculation of the miners for the system and as such provide rewards accordingly [43, 44].

9.2 Decentralization

With its distributed nature , blockchain is a promising methodology to solve bottleneck and single-point failure problems effectively by removing the need for a trusted third party in the CoT network. Furthermore, the blockchain peer-to-peer architecture enables all network members to check the correctness of IoT data and ensure immutability with fair validation rights. Security and privacy: By using blockchain-enabled smart contracts, the BCoT system can achieve trustworthy access control that enables all operations of cloud providers and IoT devices to be automatically allowed and avoids possible threats to cloud resources and improves fine-grained control of IoT data. In addition, the blockchain allows users to monitor their network transactions in order to preserve device and data ownership to improve the privacy of information [45].

On the cloud platform, decentralized blockchain-based cloud storage can be created via its hash values (Fig. 10). Blockchain-based storage manages IoT data and regularly implements verification to identify the potential for data alteration, for example, the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) [46].

Fig. 10
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Interlinking of various layers with blockchain

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It is a blockchain-based database system that can be safely stored between storage nodes and is now available on the cloud. This has also been shown to address effectively data storage problems brought by centralized cloud models in terms of data leakage and storage management.

9.3 Applications from BCoT

CoT allows efficient exchange of health data in environments where EHRs can be collected and stored electronically on cloud servers, while consumers can access their medical records for health tracking using their mobile devices (e.g., smartphones). This promises to deliver healthcare services on demand, save healthcare costs, and enhance the quality of experience. However, due to attack potential and lack of trust between health cloud providers, cloud storage, and users, health data sharing based on such complex cloud IoT environments is often susceptible to security and privacy risks. Via decentralized data verification of all peers and message confirmation based on consensus frameworks, blockchain plays an important role in solving safety issues in health data sharing. In particular, blockchain traceability enables healthcare institutions (e.g., healthcare providers, insurance firms, and patients) (Fig. 11) to monitor user access habits and identify data attacks in order to strengthen the protection of exchange of health data in BCoT networks [47, 48].

Fig. 11
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Hierarchal structure of blockchain fields in the current environment

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Overlay networks, cloud storage servers, healthcare providers, smart contracts, and patients make up the architecture. In particular, the blockchain is linked through a P2P network to cloud storage, where each cloud storage holds medical records in blocks and the hash value of these.

Blocks are stored in a series of blocks. This makes it possible to easily track any changes in details.

10 Conclusion

We defined the design and the architecture priorities of three decentralized cloud systems in this chapter. In addition, we measured them, addressed future work gaps in the field, and underlined the need for a number of features to be standardized. Blockchain-based cloud initiatives are still in their development, and so many open limitations need to be tackled, such as computational performance validation and company resource benchmarking. The schemes under consideration concentrate on the production of a functional product with a view to commercial solutions, and usability is one of their key indicators of performance. In the long run, however, the lack of standards could become an obstacle to competing with big suppliers and could impede the development of open markets.