Keywords

Introduction

Contemporary Brasil has been marked by the historical processes of industrialization and urbanization and by the constitution of a national integrated economic system. The country has developed through multiple interests and at all levels of government, from the global, national, regional, and local territories. In the last three decades, many changes have occurred to create a new socio-spatial process and rearticulating of Brasil, in its most varied and splendored formats. The region has become through a construction of geographical knowledge, based on concrete elements (urban network, hierarchical classification of urban centers, detection of management flows, among others), capable of distinguishing regional spaces at suitable scales (IBGE, 2017a).

The regions are categorized from nearby urban centers to meet the immediate needs of populations, including goods and services, jobs and public services such as education, health, and welfare. Large urban centers are responsible for generating income for all of the country. With its economy focused on several sectors of activity, Brasil has the second largest industrial market in America, represented by several important areas of production – the automobile, aircraft, steel, petrochemical, and technology sectors. The service activity also generates great wealth, especially in banking and other financial operations carried out every day with large international investors. With this dynamic and varied set of products, Brasil is called by some economists as an emerging power, forming part of several economic blocs like the BRICS, G20 + 5, and Mercosur. GDP is the seventh largest in the world, reaching US$ 1.775 trillion. Despite this level of wealth, there is an enormous diversity in relation to the quality of life of its citizens and the generation of employment, being one of the main social problems experienced in the present time (IBGE, 2017b).

Tourism has significant potential to help economically develop the country, especially when we consider the great diversity of ecosystems and cultures. If this emerging industry and vocation are properly channeled, the country has multiple attractive destinations, niche markets, and various products to be offered. The trajectory of the National Tourism Policy began with the institutionalization of the National Program for the Municipalization of Tourism (PNMT) in 1994. Under the coordination of the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Tourism, the program was designed to boost the development of tourist activity at the municipal level (Ministério do Turismo, 2013).

With the creation of the Ministry of Tourism in 2003, the Federal Government strengthened the new model of public management, both decentralized and participatory. The Tourism Regionalization Program – ‘Roteiros do Brasil’, launched in 2004, constituted a public policy at the territorial level. This policy was based on the National Tourism Plan 2003–2007, which determined the macroprogramme – Structuring and Diversification of the Tourism Offer. The Program’s premise, considered to be strategic for the achievement of the National Tourism Policy, had a positive impact on the socio-economic results of the territory. Nine years later, new guidelines for the Tourism Regionalization Program (Ministério do Turismo, 2013) were developed based on the strategic actions proposed in the 2013–2016 National Tourism Plan. These guidelines reinforced the position presented in the evaluation of the Tourism Regionalization Program, of prioritizing actions in the regions and, thus, consolidating a decentralized management by expanding local participation, dialog, and social control.

In order to promote the development of tourist regions in Brasil, the Ministry of Tourism prepared guiding documents with step by step for the technical implementation of the Tourism Regionalization Program, which includes the “Tourism and Sustainability” guidelines (Ministério do Turismo, 2007). These documents present the fundamental principles of Sustainability within the environmental, socio-cultural, economic, and political-institutional spheres, highlighting the role and potential impact of tourism in local and regional development (Ministério do Turismo, 2007). In 2016, the Ministry of Tourism presented the guide “Tourism and Sustainability – Guidelines for Tourist Service Providers”, which aimed to disseminate knowledge and sustainability practices that can be replicated in enterprises, generating positive return in one or more aspects: economic, social, and environmental (Ministério do Turismo, 2016).

The tourism industry is responsible for several types of companies, forming the national tourism product. This product can be divided into food service activities that represent about 41.9%, road transport (16.3%), and recreational, cultural, and sports activities, which registered 13.6% of the total industry. Tourism in the Brasilian economy accounted for US$6.8 billion in 2016, equivalent to 3.2% of GDP. The total contribution of the sector totaled US$152.2 billion, 8.5% of GDP. The WTTC estimates a growth of 3.3% until 2027, reaching 9.1% of GDP, equivalent to US$212.1billion. According to data from the WTTC, the sector generated more than seven million jobs in 2016, which represent 7.8% of the total volume (Conselho Nacional de Turismo & Ministério do Turismo 2018).

Similar to other large economies, such as China and the United States of America, Brasilian domestic tourism is of tremendous importance, estimating to be ten times larger than the international touristic demand (Conselho Nacional de Turismo & Ministério do Turismo, 2018), representing about 90% of the tourism economy in the country (SEBRAE, 2015a). It is estimated that 50% of Brasilian homes with fixed phones had at least one inhabitant who traveled domestically in 2017, and 92,149,646 flights within the country (including Brasilian residents and nonresidents) (Conselho Nacional de Turismo & Ministério do Turismo, 2018).

A total of 6,578,074 international tourists visited Brasil in 2016 (Conselho Nacional de Turismo & Ministério do Turismo, 2018). Foreign visitors came from South America (56.8%), Europe (24.4%), North America (11.2%), Asia (4.6%), Africa (1.2%), and Oceania (1.0%). The greatest number of foreign tourists were from Argentina, Germany, France, and the United States of America. The main motivation for travel was leisure (56.8%), followed by visits to friends and relatives (21.1%), and business (18.7%) (Ministério do Turismo, 2018). Related to leisure, sun and sea were the highest demand (68.8%) followed by ecotourism (16.6%). The main destinations were Rio de Janeiro – southeast region (32.2%), followed by Florianópolis – south region (17.9%), Foz do Iguaçu – south region (13.2%), and São Paulo – the country’s main capital (9.1%). An important characteristic in relation to São Paulo is that the primary motivation of the trip was business, this representing the highest income per capita of the analyzed segments. This research also identified that 95% of tourists intend to return to Brasil. Hospitality is the most positive aspect of the evaluation with a total of 98%, followed by accommodation (5.7%), gastronomy (95.4%), and catering (95.0%) (Ministério do Turismo, 2018). Given sport’s irrefutable importance and significance in the field of Brasilian tourism, the next section aims to presenting a big picture about sport tourism in Brasil.

Sport Tourism in Brasil

Sport tourism is a promising tourism sector in Brasil. For example, Brasil is ranked first among 141 countries in terms of natural attractions by the World Economic Forum (Ministério do Turismo 2016). The sport tourism industry in Brasil includes recreational activities, such as, walking (22.1%), horseback riding (10.3%), bicycle tourism (8.6%), mountaineering (7.7%), vertical techniques (6.9%), rock climbing (6.7%), diving (6.2%), among others. The potential for growth in this important sector is due to several factors: (a) 62% of the national territory has native vegetation, which favors the practice of activities such as tree climbing, trails, climbing, etc.; (b) the country boasts 7408 km of coastal extension, which facilitates the practice of activities such as canoeing, kite surfing, diving, surfing, among others; (c) the country’s biodiversity is the largest in the world, representing more than 20% of the world total; (d) there are more than 230 points of reference indicated for the practice of adventure tourism; (e) more than 3000 companies offer services and products in this modality; and (f) Brasil ranks third among countries that have the largest number of sport tourism enthusiasts, behind only the United States and Argentina (SEBRAE, 2015a).

This is a market predominantly based on domestic demand, which represents around 90% of the volume of tourists traveling throughout the country. The profile of adventure/eco/nature sport tourism participants in Brasil is composed of male (53.3%) and female (46.7%) individuals, mostly between the ages of 18–29 years (38.0%). These sport tourists tend to be single (48.0%), highly educated (58.0%), mostly belonging to Social Class BFootnote 1 (56.0%). In Brasil, there are 5,382,468 total customers served per year in this segment, generating a total income of R$ 515,875,659, with between 15,500 and 22,500employees involved in normal and high season, respectively. It is estimated that this market will grow in the number of international sport tourists. The segment is growing on average between 15% and 25% annually, and increasing 161% on average in annual spending, from R$112 to R$293 (SEBRAE, 2015b).

Brasil has become a frequent site for international mega sporting events, including the Pan American Games 2007 (Rio de Janeiro); the 5th CISM World Summer Games 2011 (Rio de Janeiro); the FIFA Confederations Cup 2013 and the FIFA World Cup 2014 (all over Brasil); and the Rio 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games (SEBRAE, 2015c, 2016a). During the 2014 FIFA World Cup, 12 stadiums hosted 64 games and received 3.4 million spectators, the second largest audience of all 20 World Cup events. In addition to the 3.1million Brasilians who traveled domestically during the World Cup, Brasil received just over one million foreign tourists from 203 nationalities, who spent in foreign currency roughly US$1.6billion (Presidência da República, 2015). Despite the games being hosted in 12 different cities, the World Cup attracted foreign tourists to 491 cities (SEBRAE, 2015c). More recently, the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro brought together about 11,400 athletes (6200 men and 5200 women) from 205 countries, who competed in a total of 42 disciplines. Moreover, during the Summer Olympics, Rio de Janeiro received 1.17 million tourists in August during the Rio 2016 Olympics, according to a survey carried out by the Special Tourism Secretariat/Riotur. Of this total, 410,000 were foreigners (Riotur, 2016).

Popular in European countries, football tourism is growing in Brasil. The sport, which is a national passion, mobilizes more than 150 million fans and generates around 11 billion reais a year. The sport also generates 370,000 direct jobs in the country. Football tourism in Brasil had its rise during the 2014 World Cup, when the mega sporting event was hosted in Brasil. During the event, fans visited clubs, stadiums, museums, and bars associated with the sport. Football tourism involves the displacement of people who travel to watch football matches and to participate in other activities related to this sport. Those participating in the competitions (athletes) are not part of this modality, but spectators represent the football tourist. As such, the football tourist is mainly male (73.0%), mostly over 40 years old (48.0%), with higher levels of education (54.0%), and with higher levels of income. They travel mostly with friends (40.0%), and the highest source of spending is the cost associated with tickets acquisition (55.0%) (SEBRAE, 2016b).

Running tourism is also on the rise in Brasil. Road running gains, more fans in Brasil every day (Salgado & Mikail, 2007). The ease and low cost to participate in the activity, in addition to a growing focus on health, are some of the main reasons for the sport’s popularity. The number of runners grow along with the street events, which have helped to expand the sports tourism sector and the Brasilian economy. The Brasilian runner travels primarily to participate in events in other states and abroad, thus creating new opportunities for tourism agencies and operators. It is estimated that road running produces a market of 3.1 billion reais (in a scenario with four million road runners) in Brasil. Part of this market derives from race registrations, sponsorship fees, sales of sports equipment, and other services related to this business model. According to a study carried out by the Spanish consultancy group Relevance, there was a 50.0% growth in the number of race participants in the country from 2011 to 2017 (SEBRAE, 2018).

Brasil attracts runners from all over the world and has hundreds of street events, including 13 official marathons, including the Rio de Janeiro Marathon, and the Saint Silvester International Road Race in São Paulo. The sector also generates other segments of the economy, such as hotel chains, restaurants, tourism, and local businesses in the cities where the events are held. Running tourism also boosts the creation of new businesses such as sports products and specialized food. Runners who travel to other states or countries to participate in competitions and events also want to know about local tourism opportunities. These events usually take place on weekend, sometimes with categories of race length, and difficulty divided between different days (SEBRAE, 2018).

The profiles of the road runners are as follows: 43.0% are between 25 and 35 years old; the preferred distance is 10 km; 57.0% prefer to run alone; 46.0% do weight training or strength training in addition to running; 44.8% prefer the morning to participate in the activity; 33.0% prefer to run at night; 34.0% do not practice another sport. Although the sport is still predominantly male, Brasilian women are becoming more active in this sport. In 2017, 50.6% of the 29,000 enrolled in the City of Rio de Janeiro Marathon and Rio Half Marathon (42 km, 21 km and 6 km) were women. It was the first time that men were a minority in one of the main street events in Brasil. The trend has motivated more and more exclusive running events for women (SEBRAE, 2018).

Considering the increased importance of sport tourism in Brasil, especially the sport tourism events, and particularly the growth of road races events, the following section presents the case study about the half marathon running event – the 21 k Guarujá 2016.

The 21 k Guarujá 2016

The 21 k Guarujá is an annual road race held in the city of Guarujá, Sate of São Paulo, Brasil. This was the third time that the event had been held in the city, organized by a private company named “Educa Guarujá”. The organizer of this event holds a total of five events per year, one in the month of March which is the women’s race, 21 km in August, and a 5 km and 10 km circuit divided into three stages within the city during the year.

The 21 K Guarujá 2016 was held on August 21 with two distances: the half marathon (21 km) and the 10 km. Participation demand for the event significantly increased the year under study compared to previous years. In the first year of the event, there were a total of 350 participants, while in the second year, 430 runners participated. In 2016, there were a total of 1000 participants, with 700 running the half marathon, and 300 participating in the 10 km; 15% of the participants resided in the municipality.

Integrated within the international project supported by the International Research Network In Sport Tourism (IRNIST), the current study followed the same comparative methodology used to collect data in nine countries across three continents (see Van Rheenen, Melo, & Sobry, this volume). An online survey was provided to a sample of 89 participants (12.7% of the total number of participants) of the 21 k Guarujá 2016, between August 21 and 31, 2016. In the week after the event took place, 59 face-to-face surveys were applied to residents of the city of Guarujá. Two in-depth, semistructured interviews were also conducted during the week after the event: one to the executive director of the private company who organized the running race and; the other to a representative of the Secretariat of Tourism of Guarujá.

The following part of this section will present a brief description of the State of São Paulo and more specific Guarujá, the city where the case study was carried out. The chapter will then proceed with the presentation of the main results of the study.

The State of São Paulo and the City of Guarujá

The state of São Paulo, located in the southwestern region of Brasil, has a total of 645 municipalities, with a total area of 248,222,362 km2. The state has a population of 44 million inhabitants, about 22.0% of the country’s total population. São Paulo is the richest state in the country, with the highest GDP, accounting for 32.1% of total wealth. If the State of São Paulo was an independent country, its economy would be the eighteenth largest in the world (Estado de São Paulo, 2017).

São Paulo has great diversification of economic sectors, both industrial and service rendering. In the case of the industrial sector, metal-mechanics, alcohol and sugar cane, textile, automobile, and aviation predominate. The primary services offered include finance and banking. The city of São Paulo is considered the financial capital of the country, where the headquarters of the largest national and international banks are concentrated. In addition to the banks, the city of São Paulo is the seat of the Stock Exchange, considered the second largest in the world in market value (Estado de São Paulo, 2017).

The tertiary sector in São Paulo represents all other forms of service provision. Within this area of the economy we find tourism. Divided into three poles of development, the tourism market includes the capital of São Paulo, the coast and the interior. The main segment of the city of São Paulo is business tourism, which offers approximately 45 thousand events per year and has the largest hotel chain in the country. Formed by the biomes of the Atlantic forest and the cerrado, the city has 22 state parks, the majority of which are natural preservation. One example is the Serra do Mar park, a majestic forest preserved in its original form and, which extends to the state of Paraná. The state’s coastline is 622 km2, with a total of 293 beaches. These areas offer numerous seaside resorts, the busiest of which are Pitangueiras in the city of Guarujá, and then São Vicente, located in the city of Santos (Estado de São Paulo, 2017).

Guarujá is one of the most important tourist locations within the state of São Paulo. In the 1970s, Guarujá was internationally recognized as the “pearl of the Atlantic”. With roughly 143 km2, its exuberant nature spreads across 27 beaches and attracts throngs of tourists to the region. Guarujá is part of the metropolitan region of Santos, located on the south coast of the State of São Paulo, about 88 km from the Capital of São Paulo (IBGE, 2017a, b). It occupies the island of Santo Amaro and is composed of two districts: Guarujá and Vicente de Carvalho.

With a population of 311,230 inhabitants and with a GDP of R$3,221,211,323 thousand, in addition to nautical, nature, and sport tourism, Guarujá has an economy supported by the petrochemical industry, as well as robust port activity. Indeed, tourism is one of the bases of the economy, attracting tourists mainly in high season; it is therefore considered a seasonal activity. Its beautiful beaches, some of which are urbanized while others are accessible only by footpaths, possess historical constructions dating back to Portuguese colonization. Thus, Guarujá also has tourist attractions that portray the history of the city and its development over time. In addition to running events, the city also attracts other sporting events such as triathlon, surfing, and football championship.

The Participants of the 21 K Guarujá 2016

Response data from the survey instrument were collected from 89 participants of the 21 k Guarujá 2016 event. Nearly three-quarters (74.2%) of the respondents were male, mostly (60.7%) married, with an average age of 40.6 years old. The results distributed by aged groups indicate a predominance of respondents between the ages of 25 and 34 years (30.3%) and between 35 and 44 years (34.8%). A significant majority (82.0%) had earned a bachelor’s degree. About 42.7% indicated that they were employed in private companies. Consistent with higher education levels and current employment, the vast majority (95.6%) of respondents earned above the national minimum wage: 23.6% between 210€ and 630€; 22.5% between 631€ and 1050€; 16.9% between 1051€ and 1470€; and 15.7% above 1470€. These data suggest that the majority of respondents belong to the middle and lower middle class. Almost all (97.8%) of the respondents reported living in the state of São Paulo; the vast majority (91.0%) indicated not living in the city of Guarujá. Of these, 41.6% lived at a distance of more than 40 km from the city.

A large proportion (93.3%) of respondents traveled by car to participate in the race. The majority of these (88.8%) traveled with companions (3.2 on average), mostly (66.7%) with only one other person, often a family member or members (57.0%), friend(s) (29.1%) or team/coach (13.9%). More than two-thirds (67.4%) of the respondents stayed overnight in the city during the event (1.8 nights in average), mostly at a friend’s or relative’s house (50.0%), at a hotel/motel (28.3%), or a B&B (8.3%).

Survey results found that respondents were very active participants in road races; in 2015, they had participated in 13 races on average; and almost all (87.6%) stated that they had participated in previous editions of this event. The large majority (88.6%) of respondents reported that participation in the race was the main reason to travel to Guarujá; other tourist attractions (37.1%) and proximity to home (28.1%) were the other two major reasons that motivated participants to run this particular race.

Respondents also indicated that the motivation to participate in the race was, in order of importance: to give support or accompany family or friends (mean score of 6.21; in a seven-point scale where 1 corresponds to not important at all and 7 corresponds to totally important); to gain physical exercise (mean score of 6.19); and to compete (mean score of 6.04). On the other hand, the reported motivation to stay healthy (mean score of 3.84) and the novelty of the experience (mean score of 4.28) were the less important to respondents.

The average amount of money each respondent reported having spent in the city during the event was around 155€; the most important expenditure item was associated with travel to the city (average of 62€), followed by food (average of 43€) and accommodations (average of 27€).

Regarding the perceived environmental impact of the sport tourism event, the majority (60.0%) of respondents stated that the organizers of the event made efforts to foster sustainability and took environmental preservation measures as a part of that effort.

In terms of the perceived socio-cultural impact of this race: the majority (56.2%) of the respondents participated in other leisure activities within the city of Guarujá. Over half (51.7%) had gone out for lunch and/or dinner at local restaurants, while some (27.0%) went shopping, among other activities (e.g., participate in cultural activities, visit friends and family, and attend other sporting events).

On average, respondents were mildly satisfied with the general organization of the event (mean score of 4.18 on a seven-point likert-type scale where 1 corresponds to totally unsatisfied; 4 corresponds to neither satisfied nor dissatisfied; and 7 corresponds to totally satisfied). In addition, a significant majority (77.9%) of the respondents enjoyed the city and reported that they would return for touristic purposes. The vast majority (95.5%) stated that they would return to the city to participate in other sport tourism events, and specifically to participate in this particular event in the future (83.1%).

The Residents of Guarujá

To collect the residents’ perception of the 21 k Guarujá 2016 small scale sport tourism event, this case study conducted a face-to-face survey to a sample of 59 inhabitants. The majority (61%) of the respondents were female; and almost half (45.8%) were less than 25 years old. Regarding self-reported level of education, 35.6% of the respondents indicated that they had received a basic education or less; 32.2% had earned a high school diploma, and 32.2% had obtained a higher education degree. Nearly half (47.5%) reported that they were employed in private companies. And over half (52.5%) of the respondents reported to have a monthly income between 210€ and 630€; 27.1% declared to receive the minimum wage; only 3.4% declared not earning a monthly income.

All of the residents interviewed had knowledge of the event. The majority (72.9%) reported to have participated in the race as an athlete; 16.9% of the respondents reported to have participated in the event as spectators; 6.8% indicated that they participated in the organization of the event; only 3.4% of those interviewed said that they had not participated in the event.

In general, the perception of the residents interviewed for this case study was that the event had a positive impact on the city. The most valued items (classified on a likert-type scale, where 1 is strongly disagree, 4 is neither agree nor disagree, and 7 is completely agree) were the improvement of the cultural offer during the event (mean score of 6.76), the development of environmental protection initiatives (mean score of 6.51), and an increase in the sense of pride of the inhabitants for the city (mean score of 6.14). On the other hand, the less valued items were the increase of demand for the city’s touristic attractions (mean score of 4.03); the building of infra-structures and transportations (mean score of 4.03); job opportunities created as a result of the event (mean score of 4.06); and an increase in the quality of life of residents (mean score of 4.07).

The residents’ perception of potential negative economic, environmental, and social impacts of the event was classified with mean scores above 4 points on a likert-type scale (where 1 is strongly disagree, 4 is neither agree nor disagree, and 7 is completely agree). As such, the data demonstrated that residents felt that these negative impacts were not significant. These included economic waste (mean score of 3.73); inconvenience in the use of streets and public spaces (mean score of 3.73); pollution (mean score of 3.66); degradation of the landscape (mean score of 3.64); rising prices and cost of living (mean score of 3.61); deviant behavior such as crime and vandalism (mean score of 3.59).

However, the vast majority of residents reported that the event did not contribute to: improving the basic infrastructure of the city, such as roads or access networks (84.5%), increasing the availability of parking lots in the vicinity (94.8%); or increasing the public transport (94.8%). Additionally, the majority of those interviewed stated that the event: did not help to revitalize the local customs and cultural heritage, or to preserve and rehabilitate monuments, buildings, and historical sites (81.0%).

On the other hand, the majority of residents’ agreed that the event did helped to raise awareness of the area’s image (94.8%); gave the residents the opportunity to attend a major event (98.3%); increased the residents’ opportunities to meet new people (98.3%); and contributed to increase the number of tourists who visit the city out of season (84.5%).

The Organizer and the Secretariat of Tourism of Guarujá

When conducting interviews with the organizer of the event and the representative of the Secretariat of Tourism of Guarujá, the objective was to obtain their respective visions and objectives for the 21 k Guarujá event. In particular, these interviews sought to better understand the interaction and cooperation between organizers and local authorities, as well as learn about how they perceived the economic, environmental, and socio-cultural impacts of the event on the city.

As demonstrated within these interviews, there was limited to no interaction and cooperation between the organizer and local authorities. The event was carried out solely by the organizer’s efforts, who sought sponsors (three companies) to provide goods and services for publicity but no financial payment. There was no engagement by the local authorities (Municipality and Secretariat of Tourism), financial or otherwise; in fact, the organizer had to pay a fee to use the public space, required for the sport tourism event. Additionally, local authorities did not develop any initiatives to promote the local destination during the event. The private organizer of the event requested that the Secretariat of Tourism to publicize the event through the Secretariat’s communication mechanisms. However, this did not occur; as such, the organizer was forced to rely on local companies to help publicize the event and the community.

The representative of the Secretariat of Tourism was unaware of key aspects related to the event, such as whether there had previous editions of the event, the scope and objective of the race, the number and type of sponsors, the number of participants, etc. The representative of the Secretariat of Tourism informed the researchers that this event was not part of the annual calendar of the city and that there was no sports-specific calendar for the city. The representative of the Secretariat of Tourism was also unaware of the relationship between the organizers and local merchants, especially restaurants.

In the second half of the interview, we focused on better understanding how the organizing body and the Secretariat of Tourism perceived the economic, environmental, and socio-cultural impacts of this event. In general, small scale sport tourism events have fewer environmental impacts because they do not require major alterations of the city’s infrastructure. Our data found that there was no environmental plan or strategy articulated by either the organizer or the local authorities. The only indication of concern for the environment that was noted was the attention paid to cleaning public roads after the end of the race. The organizer’s employees collected all garbage and disposables that were discarded during the course, as well as in the race-exposition area. The organizer was unaware of the use of green or ecolabels to ensure sustainability efforts are adopted for sporting events. The Secretary of Tourism was aware of these lables and recognized their importance for sustainability purposes, but none were implemented in the municipality or for this event.

In economic terms, the money needed to organize the event came entirely from race registration fees. There was no financial collaboration between the event organizer and the local government or any other local companies. The only form of support provided to the organizer was sponsorship from three companies, offering their products of water, fruit, and isotonic kits, which were awarded to race winners. The organizer reported earning a profit per event averaging (10%) of the value of the total event revenue. The total cost of organizing the event was R$ 56,000,00. However, the event organizer stated that in some events they actually lost money. It appears that the primary motivations of the event organizer are their passion for sports and the need to motivate the population to have a better quality of life. Refreshingly, the motivation does not seem to be in generating revenue or profit.

The representative of the Secretariat of Tourism was not aware of the potential- multiplier effect that a sports tourism event can have on a host destination. He acknowledged that there was no economic data collected or measured relative previous sporting events on the part of the municipality. As such, there appears to be no existing tool used by the city to calculate the economic return of the events that take place during the year within this municipality.

Both entities recognize the benefit that a sporting event can bring to the city, both for residents and for the image and identity of the city as an attractive tourist destination. However, there is no marketing strategy to promote the image of the city, relating to the sporting events presented. The organizer did take the initiative and invite local communication companies to participate in, and promote, the event and the city.

Discussion and Conclusions

Tourism in general and sport tourism in particular are growing in Brasil. This growth is due, in part, to the organization of major sporting events in the last decade, such as the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games. This growth is also due to the sheer size, diversification, and quality of the country’s vast natural resources. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Brasilian government prepared measures to improve the quality of tourism, with the goal of increasing the number of both domestic and international tourists (Ministério do Turismo, 2018). With this in mind, the Federal Government also promoted sustainable tourism measures to insure best practices (Ministério do Turismo, 2016).

The organization of small scale sport tourism events, such as road races/half marathons, is increasing worldwide and Brasil is no exception (SEBRAE, 2018). This growth also exposed some of the positive and negative impacts associated with hosting these events. In this regard, this study aimed to analyze one small scale sports tourism event and examine the environmental, economic, and social impacts that occurred as a result of hosting this event. More specifically, we wanted to understand the perceptions and behaviors of key stakeholders, such as the participants, the event organizers, local authorities/government, and also the residents. Therefore, the present research provides an empirical study that seeks to better understand the potential sustainability of these events, attempting to recognize small scale sport tourism events as a possible tool for the development and maintenance of a host destination. For this, we developed a case study of the 21 K Guarujá 2016 that was held in the city of Guarujá, Brasil.

The results of this study allow us to determine the socio-demographic profile of the participants, which are mainly male, with an average age of 40.6 years old, married, well educated, employed, with an annual income above the national average. This profile seems consistent with in most of the studies focused on small scale sport tourism events (Gibson, Kaplanidou, & Kang, 2012), and specifically in running events (Anderson, 2019).

Although girls and women are participating in increasing numbers, there remains greater male participation in sport tourism events and activities as evidenced by the results of this study. In regard to the age of the participants, the results of this and other studies have found that middle age runners (nearly two-thirds >35 years and one-third >45 years) continue to participate in sport tourism activities, such as these type of running events and activities. However, as this study found, in support of the existing literature, higher education and income levels remain strong predictors for sport tourism participation.

Of the total sample, the vast majority of the participants were residents of the state of São Paulo but did not live in the city of Guarujá. These participants mostly traveled to and from the event by car. This form of transportation accounts for some of the reported expenses, such as tolls, fuel, and parking during the trip. Participants travelling by car likely stopped for food or meals along the road. All of these expenses contributed economically to the region and/or the destination city. However, this positive economic impact must be counterbalanced with the negative environmental impact of car travel and the corresponding ecological footprint created by event participants (Collins, Munday, & Roberts, 2012).

Perhaps because of the natural resources and beauty of Guarujá, one of the most important seaside resorts of the State of São Paulo, “tourist attraction” was reported as the primary motivation for participants who chose to run this particular event. As noted by Saayman and Saymann (2012), the more activities a host destination has to offer sport tourists beyond the event itself, the better the chance of creating demand for the event. Another important motivation for participation in this race, according to respondents, was to support family and/or friends. This finding has been reported in other studies (Kurtzman & Zauhar, 2005; Duglio & Beltramo, 2017), where participants of small scale sport tourism events often travel accompanied by family and friends.

Participants of the 21 K Guarujá running race were generally satisfied with the quality of organization of the event. This overall satisfaction may be because the vast majority of respondents had participated in previous editions of the running event. They also expressed their intention to return to participate in future editions of the 21 K Guarujá. This is what Okayasu, Nogawa, Casper and Morais (2016) refer to as event loyalty, whereby a positive affective relationship is purportedly created if participants demonstrate the desire to return and participate year after year at the same event. Besides the satisfaction with the event itself, another important finding is that the vast majority of participants wanted to return to the destination to participate in other sport tourism events or activities. Finally, the majority of respondents were attracted to the host destination and would return to the city only for tourism, as has been described by Gibson (1998).

Sport tourism is one of the most effective means of developing new activities that favor sustainable development (Gray, 1982). To do so, is important to understand the three dimensions of sustainability. From an economic perspective, local actors are critical to sustainable development. These actors must be included in the planning and implementation of an event, particularly given the lack of governmental resources. All stakeholders must unite around a common goal of bringing income to the city (Drakakis & Papadaskalopoulos, 2014). In this approach, registration fees for the running event and/or private sponsorships are the most common ways of achieving this goal of income generation. In this particular case study, the revenue was primarily obtained through participants’ registration fees. But, in analyzing the participants spending during the event, there is also the positive economic impact on the city and region based on the purchase of food and accommodations. This finding supports other studies (Duglio & Beltramo, 2017), which report that spending is primarily focused on accommodations and food.

Most participants reported that organizers of the 21 K Guarujá running race were concerned with the environmental impacts of the event and actively sought to mitigate those impacts. Concerning the residents’ perception, most of the respondents perceived that the event caused limited negative environmental impacts. As previously stated, the major negative environmental impact was caused by participants traveling by car to and from the event and the residual carbon footprint created as a result.

From the socio-cultural perspective, analysis of the results determined that residents felt very positive about the outcomes of the event and reported few negative impacts related to hosting the race. These findings lead us to infer that small scale sports tourism events need not bring discomfort or displacement to the local community, supporting what Gibson et al. (2012) have argued, that these events can be destination friendly.

Results collected through questionnaire make clear the importance of this type of event to promote and improve the image of the host destination. However, when we analyze the involvement of local government in the promotion of this particular event, we did not find such positive results. In this study, it was evident that there was no synergy between private organizer and companies and local authorities.

In this sense, we argue that there must be a concerted effort made between those who organize such events and the local or regional tourism agencies or boards. This allows for a more strategic promotion of the city and not solely the event. This case study concluded that this effort was not made between the organizing body of the event and the Secretary of Tourism. This is a striking finding, particularly since this event was in its third edition, with an increasing number of participants over past years. The event is not listed as part of the official tourism portfolio and calendar of the city. This seems like a lost opportunity for the city, as the local government was not able to leverage the event to market and/or create other potential tourist attractions during these days.

Based on the study by Drakakis and Papadaskalopoulos (2014), we have been able to reflect on the importance of the key stakeholders for the development of the destination. When there is no synergy between public and private, it is extremely important to create a network that develops all activity. For example, the organizer clearly described a partnership with other private companies for the event. This partnership took place through the provision and sponsorship of goods and services, whereby the partner companies offered their products and services in the Expo Race in exchange for the publicity connected to the event.

An important element of sustainable development is the relationship of the stakeholders to the promotion, implementation, and marketing of the destination. For Carvalho (2009), this dimension of interaction can be considered as the fourth strand of sustainability, one that is institutional in nature. We find here what Rattner (1999) says, that sustainable development should not be based on market strength but rather on local cooperation for global development.

The organizer of the event made clear that the partner companies should be based in the city. As such, these stakeholders had a vested interest in the development of the city such that the local community would benefit. Even local stakeholders who did not cooperate with the organization or promotion of the event may well receive benefits from the event. For example, the restaurant sector was a beneficiary of this small scale sport tourism event, as dining out was the second largest expense reported by study participants. This result supports the study conducted by Savage, Nix, Whitehead and Blair (1991), when they classified several types of stakeholders important for local development, even when they are not directly involved in the particular event.

We therefore conclude that small scale sports tourism is positive for host cities. These events bring visibility and loyalty to a given destination, and they provide an opportunity for the interaction and cooperation between local actors. It is also important to emphasize the need for partnerships between public and private actors to best ensure the success of the event and to maximize the sustainable development for the host destination. This case study demonstrated a lack of synergy between the public and private spheres in the creation and management of the event.

This study has sought to demonstrate the need to more fully examine small scale sports tourism events as a unique research area, as it clearly involves the interaction between activity, people and place, as defined by Weed and Bull (2004). Notably, this study has provided empirical evidence to support the proposition that small scale sport tourism has the potential to attract tourists to cities where these events are held. We conclude from the results of this case study that these events offer a valuable tool for the sustainable development of tourism at the local and regional levels. This tool has the capacity to create loyalty to a particular destination, as well as to reduce the negative effect of seasonality. Perhaps, most importantly, these events do not require massive infusions of capital, relying instead on an existing infrastructure. In order to maximize the benefits, both direct and indirect, to the largest percentage of the local community, it is critical to build synergies and partnerships among key stakeholders, public, and private alike. These partnerships offer the greatest potential for lasting effect, particularly as these synergies strive to foster local sustainable development.