Abstract
Although no universal human rights treaty expressly guarantees the right to a clean, safe and healthy environment, the majority of such treaties regard a hygienic environment as a precondition for the enjoyment of, for example, the rights to life, health, food, water and an adequate standard of living. Under article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, peoples are specifically guaranteed the right to ‘a general satisfactory environment favourable to their development.’ This chapter discusses the scope and content of this multifaceted right and concomitant duties of African states through an examination of regional human rights instruments, treaty-body decisions, domestic laws, commentary and scholarly literature on the subject. It also considers the link between human rights, health, sustainable development and the environment.
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Notes
- 1.
Ben Boer and Alan Boyle, ‘Human rights and the environment – Background Paper for the 13th Informal ASEM Seminar on Human Rights’ (21–23 October 2013) Sydney Law School Research Paper No. 14/14, http://ssrn.com/absract=2393753 accessed 8 May 2016.
- 2.
See, United Nations, ‘Report of the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, John Knox’ (2012) A/HRC/22/43, para 34; see also Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project [1997] ICJ Rep. 7, 91–92: in his separate opinion, Judge Weeremantry recognized that the enjoyment of human rights is dependent on environmental protection; Alexandre-Charles Kiss, ‘Concept and possible implications of the right to environment in Kathleen Mahoney and Paul Mahoney (eds), Human rights in the twenty-first century: a global challenge (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1993) 551 and 553: Kiss contends that environmental degradation and damage has an adverse impact on normal ecological processes of nature as well as human health, both physical and mental.
- 3.
United Nations, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment’ (24 January 2018) A/HRC/37/59, paras 11–13.
- 4.
Art 24.
- 5.
See Lilian Chenwi, ‘The right to a satisfactory, healthy, and sustainable environment’ in John Knox and Ramin Pejan (eds), The human right to a healthy environment (Cambridge University Press 2018) 66 and 69: Chenwi points out that although the phrasing of article 24 draws a normative link between the environment and development, it is rather vague.
- 6.
Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment [1972] A/RES/2994.
- 7.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 6.
- 8.
Louis B. Sohn, ‘The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment’ (1973) 14 Harvard International Law Journal 423,451–5.
- 9.
[1992] A/CONF.151/26.
- 10.
Ibid, principle 1.
- 11.
Ibid, principle 10.
- 12.
Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change [2007] Preamble.
- 13.
Preamble.
- 14.
United Nations, The Future We Want (27 July 2012) U.N. Doc. A/CONF.216/L.1 paras 8, 108 and 138 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/futurewewant.html accessed 7 September 2016.
- 15.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 7.
- 16.
See United Nations ‘Sustainable development goals’ http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ accessed 7 May 2016.
- 17.
See, for example, Target 3.9 of the Sustainable Development Goals: by 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination.
- 18.
OHCHR, ‘Analytical study on the relationship between human rights and the environment’ (16 December 2011) A/HRC/19/34 paras 15–22.
- 19.
Human Rights and the environment [2012] A/HRC/RES/19/10.
- 20.
United Nations A/HRC/22/43 (n 2).
- 21.
United Nations A/HRC/37/59 (n 3) para 2.
- 22.
Sueli Giorgetta, ‘The right to a healthy environment, human rights and sustainable development’ (2002) 2 International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 172,181.
- 23.
Frans Viljoen, International Human Rights Law in Africa (2nd edn OUP 2012) 268.
- 24.
Ben Kiromba Twinomugisha ‘Some reflections on judicial protection of the right to a clean and healthy environment in Uganda’ (2007) 3(3) Law, Environment and Development Journal 244,247 http://www.lead-journal.org/content/07244.pdf accessed 15 August 2016.
- 25.
United Nations, A/HRC/37/59 (n 3), para 11.
- 26.
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12) (2000) E/C.12/2000/4 paras 4 and 11; Ben Kiromba Twinomugisha, Fundamentals of health law in Uganda (Pretoria University Law Press 2015) 1 and 91; Twinomugisha, ‘Some reflections on judicial protection of the right to a clean and healthy environment in Uganda’ (n 24) 248–249.
- 27.
See, for instance, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, art 25; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art 25.
- 28.
CESCR (n 26) para 15.
- 29.
CESCR (n 26) paras 4 and 15.
- 30.
CESCR, General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (2003) E/C.12/2002/11 paras 2 and 11.
- 31.
Ibid, para 8.
- 32.
[1989] UNTS 1577 3.
- 33.
[1979] UNTS 1249 13.
- 34.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights ‘Mapping Human Rights Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment’ (2013) para 79.
- 35.
Protocol of San Salvador [1988] OASTS 69.
- 36.
See also, ASEAN Human Rights Declaration, (18 November 2012) ASEAN Statements and Communiques, art 28: ‘[e]very person has the right to an adequate standard of living for himself or herself and his or her family including . . . [t]he right to a safe, clean and sustainable environment.’
- 37.
[1998] UNTS 2161 447.
- 38.
[1961] ETS 35.
- 39.
Complaint no. 30/2005, European Committee of Social Rights, 6 December 2006, para 195.
- 40.
Ibid, paras 195–196, 200, 202 and 205.
- 41.
Mirja Trilsch, ‘European Committee of Social Rights: the right to a healthy environment’ (2009) 7(3) I.CON 529536.
- 42.
Ibid.
- 43.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 15.
- 44.
United Nations, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment’ (2018) A/73/188 paras 8 and 9.
- 45.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 14; Philip Alston ‘Conjuring up new human rights: a proposal for quality control’ (1984) 78 American Journal of International Law 607; Michael Kidd Environmental law 2ed (2nd edn Juta and Company Ltd. 2011) 21.
- 46.
United Nations, A/HRC/22/43 (n 2) para 12.
- 47.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 14.
- 48.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 14.
- 49.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 14.
- 50.
United Nations, A/73/188 (n 44) paras 12–27; Michael Andersen, in ‘Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection’ in Alan E. Boyle and Michael R. Andersen (eds), Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection 15 (Clarendon Press 1996).
- 51.
Boer and Boyle (n 1) 11 and 13.
- 52.
Twinomugisha, ‘Some reflections on judicial protection of the right to a clean and healthy environment in Uganda’ (n 24) 248–249.
- 53.
Philippe Cullet ‘Definition of an environmental right in a human rights context’ (1995) 13 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 29.
- 54.
The right to the best attainable state of physical and mental health.
- 55.
The right to self-determination.
- 56.
The right to freely dispose of wealth and natural resources.
- 57.
The right to development.
- 58.
Dinah Shelton ‘Decision regarding Communication 155/96 (Social and Economic Rights Action Center/Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria). Case No. ACHPR/COMM/A044/1’ (2002) 96(4) American Journal of International Law 937,942.
- 59.
(2001) AHRLR 60 (ACHPR 2001) (SERAC).
- 60.
Ibid, para 53.
- 61.
Ibid, para 44.
- 62.
Ibid, paras 52–53; See also, Morné Van der Linde and Lirette Louw ‘Considering the interpretation and implementation of article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights in light of the SERAC Communication’ (2003) 3(1) African Human Rights Law Journal 167,179.
- 63.
Van der Linde and Louw (n 62).
- 64.
SERAC (n 59) paras 52–53: this entails ‘requiring and publicising environmental and social impact studies prior to any major industrial development, undertaking appropriate monitoring and providing information to those communities exposed to hazardous materials and activities and providing meaningful opportunities for individuals to be heard and to participate in the development decisions affecting their communities.’
- 65.
Van der Linde and Louw (n 62) 176.
- 66.
Van der Linde and Louw (n 62) 179.
- 67.
Resolution No. 431 on the Right to Food and Nutrition in Africa, ACHPR/Res.431 (LXV) 2019.
- 68.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR), General Comment No. 3 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Life (Article 4), paras 3 and 41.
- 69.
Para 67.
- 70.
Para 44.
- 71.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR), State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights Relating to the Operations of Extractive Industries; Resolution of the African Commission on the Niamey Declaration on Ensuring the Upholding of the African Charter in the Extractive Industries Sector, ACHPR/Res. 367 (LX) 2017.
- 72.
Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12.
- 73.
Article 1 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights states: ‘The member states of the Organization of African Unity parties to the present Charter shall recognize the rights, duties and freedoms enshrined in this Charter and shall undertake to adopt legislative or other measures to give effect to them.’
- 74.
SERAP (n 72) para 100.
- 75.
SERAP (n 72) para 101.
- 76.
Reference No. 9 of 2010 (ANAW).
- 77.
These provisions require partner states to conserve, protect and co-operate in the management of natural resources and the environment.
- 78.
ANAW (n 76) para 85.
- 79.
[2003].
- 80.
[1990] CAB/LEG/24.9/49.
- 81.
[2003].
- 82.
Art 3(2).
- 83.
Art 1(a)(b).
- 84.
Art 16.
- 85.
See OHCHR (n 18) para 30; see also OHCHR and United Nations Environment Programme Human Rights and the Environment: Rio+20 Joint Report (2012).
- 86.
David R. Boyd, The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment (UBC Press 2011) 156.
- 87.
Ibid, 149. This now includes Zimbabwe where amendments to the constitution saw the inclusion of a right to a healthy environment.
- 88.
Law No. 2016–886 of 8 November 2016 on the Constitution of the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, art 27.
- 89.
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 11 December 1996, s 24.
- 90.
Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20) Act, 2013, 22 May 2013, s 73.
- 91.
Eg. Section 15 of the Constitution of Mali, 1992: ‘[e]very person shall have the right to a healthy environment. The protection, defence and promotion of the environment shall be obligations for all and for the State.’
- 92.
Kaniye SA Ebeku ‘The right to a satisfactory environment and the African Commission’ (2003) 1 African Human Rights Law Journal 149,151.
- 93.
Chenwi (n 5) 59.
- 94.
ACHPR Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities, ‘Extractive Industries, Land Rights and Indigenous Populations’/Communities’ Rights 2017 East, Central and Southern Africa’ (2017) 8 and 17.
- 95.
African Union (AU) & Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa (2015) http://ww.uneca.org/sites/default/files/publications/iff_main_report_english_pdf, accessed 4 April 2016.
- 96.
Chenwi (n 5) 66.
- 97.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 3; Resolution ACHPR/Res.224 (LI) 2012 on a human rights-based approach to the governance of natural resources.
- 98.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 4.
- 99.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 7.
- 100.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 70) para 51.
- 101.
Chenwi (n 5) 67.
- 102.
Solomon A. Dersso ‘The jurisprudence of the African Commission in Human and People’s Rights with respect to people’s rights’ (2006) 6(2) African Human Rights Law Journal 358,359.
- 103.
In Katangese Peoples’ Congress v Zaire (2000) AHRLR 72 (ACHPR 1995) para 3, the ACHPR acknowledges this with respect to peoples’ right to self-determination under article 20 of the African Charter.
- 104.
SERAC (n 59) para 56.
- 105.
SERAP (n 72) para 114; Moustapha Fall ‘Valuable Precedents: The Protection of the Right to Environment by Sub-regional African Courts’ (The ACtPHR Monitor, 13 September 2016) http://www.acthprmonitor.org/valuable-precedents-the-protection-of-the-right-to-environment-by-sub-regional-african-courts/, accessed 15 June 2019.
- 106.
Dersso (n 102) 361–362.
- 107.
United Nations, ‘Issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment’ (8 January 2019) A/HRC/40/55 para 31.
- 108.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 70) 11. See also Katangese Peoples’ Congress v Zaire (n 103); Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority 223 Rights Group International on Behalf of Endorois Welfare Council v Kenya (2009) AHRLR 75 (ACHPR 2009).
- 109.
Dersso (n 102) 380–381.
- 110.
SERAC (n 59) para 68.
- 111.
Ebeku (n 92) 165.
- 112.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 28.
- 113.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 27.
- 114.
Twinomugisha, ‘Some reflections on judicial protection of the right to a clean and healthy environment in Uganda’ (n 24) 249.
- 115.
Hennie Strydom, ‘Introduction to Regional Environmental Law of the African Union’ in Werner Scholtz and Jonathan Verschuuren Regional Environmental Law: Transregional Comparative Lessons in Pursuit of Sustainable Development (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015) 34.
- 116.
See also, United Nations, Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework: Report of the Special Representative to of the Secretary-General on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises (21 March 2011) A/HRC/17/31: Under Principle 1 states must ensure that their citizens are protected from human rights abuses by businesses by taking appropriate steps to prevent, investigate and redress such abuses including through legislative, policy, judicial and other measures.
- 117.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para.
- 118.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) paras 32.
- 119.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 30.
- 120.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 36.
- 121.
See SERAC (n 59); ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 40.
- 122.
Emeka Polycarp Amechi, ‘Enhancing environmental protection and socio-economic development in Africa: a fresh look at the right to a general satisfactory environment under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (2009) 5(1) Law, Environment and Development Journal 58 63.
- 123.
Pierre de Vos, ‘A new beginning? The enforcement of social, economic and cultural rights under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (2004) 8(1) Law, Development & Democracy 1 10.
- 124.
Ibid; see also the SERAC decision in which this principle is reaffirmed by the ACPHR, holding that articles 21 and 24 should be interpreted through an ‘integrated and complementary reading and application of civil and political rights (Articles 2 and 4) and economic, social and cultural rights (Articles 14, 16 and 18).’
- 125.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 56.
- 126.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 44; United Nations, A/HRC/17/31 (n 116), Principle 11.
- 127.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 59.
- 128.
Article 27 states that: ‘[e]very individual shall have duties towards his family and society, the state and other legally recognised communities and the international community. The rights and freedoms of each individual shall be exercised with due regard to the rights of others, collective security, morality and common interest.’
- 129.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 58.
- 130.
ACHPR State Reporting Guidelines on Articles 21 and 24 (n 71) para 65.
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Lumina, M. (2020). The Right to a Clean, Safe and Healthy Environment Under the African Human Rights System. In: Addaney, M., Oluborode Jegede, A. (eds) Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_2
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