Abstract
The regulatory framework on environmental conservation has for decades called on states parties to involve women in decision-making processes. Further, human rights law, in general, recognizes women’s right to public participation. In spite of these legal provisions at the international and regional levels in Africa, women’s right to participate in environmental decision-making processes is inadequately safeguarded in Uganda. This is so, despite the fact that women have specifically been noted to directly deal with natural resources by virtue of their socially constructed gender roles. Using doctrinal analysis, this chapter analyzes the adequacy of environmental and human rights legal framework in ensuring the realization of women’s right to participation in environmental decision-making in Uganda.
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Notes
- 1.
Donald Kaniaru and Lal Karukulasiriya, ‘Capacity Building in Environmental Law,’ in Sun Lin and Karukulasiriya L (eds) UNEP’s New Way Forward: Environmental Law and Sustainable Development 171–184.
- 2.
Jeroen van Bekhoven, ‘Public Participation as a General Principle in International Environmental Law: Its Current Status and Real Impact’ 2016 (11) 2 National Taiwan University Law Review 229.
- 3.
UN Doc A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, Ch. I (Principle 19).
- 4.
Adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1982 (paragraph 23).
- 5.
U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vol. I), annex I (Aug. 12, 1992) (principle 10).
- 6.
Bekhoven (n 2) 236; William Murray Tabb, ‘Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making’ in Le Roy C Paddock, Robert L Glicksman, Nicholas S Bryner, Decision Making in Environmental Law (Vol. II Edward Elgar 2016) 313–327, 315.
- 7.
Article 18, Berlin rules on water resources, Report of the Seventy-First Conference of the International Law Association held in Berlin, 16–21 August 2004. https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/meetings/legal_board/2010/annexes_groundwater_paper/Annex_IV_Berlin_Rules_on_Water_Resources_ILA.pdf accessed on 05 January, 2019.
- 8.
Bekhoven (n 2) 236.
- 9.
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) Secretariat, ‘What is Gender and Biodiversity?’ https://www.cbd.int/gender/biodiversity/default.shtml accessed 11 December, 2018.
- 10.
Danny Elder et al., Ecosystem Management: lessons from Around the World. A Guide for Development and Conservation Practitioners (2nd Ed. Switzerland: IUCN 2000) 33 and 43.
- 11.
Nicky Broeckhoven and Ann Cliquet, ‘Gender and ecological restoration: time to connect the dots’ 2015 (23) 6 The Journal of the Society for ecological restoration 729–736, 730.
- 12.
Ibid.
- 13.
Sandeep Kumar Aditya ‘Role of Women in Environmental Conservation’ (2016) 4 (4) International Journal of Political Science and Development 140–145, 141.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I); 31 ILM 874 (1992), Principle 20.
- 16.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619, preamble.
- 17.
1954 UNTS 3; 33 ILM 1328 (1994), preamble, article 5(d), article 10.
- 18.
Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189.
- 19.
UN Doc. A/CONF. 177/20 (1995) and A/CONF. 177/20/Add. 1 (1995), point k.
- 20.
Adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 18, 1979, articles 7 (b) and 14.
- 21.
UN Doc. A/CONF. 177/20 (1995).
- 22.
CAB/LEG/66.6 (Sept. 13, 2000) Article 18 (2) (a).
- 23.
Lorena Revelo Aguilar et al., Women in Environmental Decision making: Case Studies in Liberia, Ecuador and the Philippines (IUCN, 2015) 6.
- 24.
Aditya (n 13) 141.
- 25.
IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., (Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press 2007) 976 pp.
- 26.
Violet N Gathaara et al., ‘Gender, soil and water conservation in Machakos district, Kenya’ 2011 (10) African Crop Science Conference Proceedings 319–322, 320.
- 27.
Sophie Grouwels, Kata Wagner and Laura Schweitzer, ‘Women are key figures in sustainable forest management’ http://www.fao.org/forestry/30285-06ea8b7a9e47c9d1469b982dc67ab8092.pdf accessed on 12 October, 2019.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Marinella Leone, ‘Women as decision makers in community forest management: Evidence from Nepal’ 2019 Journal of Development Economics 1–3.
- 30.
Liliana Bastian, Molly Gilligan and Barbara Clabots, Gender and Protected Areas: Exploring National Reporting to the Ramsar Convention and the World Heritage Convention (IUCN and EGI 2016) 5.
- 31.
Ibid. 24.
- 32.
Ibid. 8.
- 33.
Leah Duran, ‘What does Gender have to do with conservation?’ 2018 https://www.conservation.org/blog/what-does-gender-have-to-do-with-conservation- accessed 19 November, 2019.
- 34.
Bina Agarwal, Gender and Green Governance: The Political Economy of Women’s Presence within and Beyond Community Forestry (OUP 2010) 40.
- 35.
Angela Martin, ‘Gender in the conservation of protected areas’ 2007 https://www.cbd.int/doc/pa/tools/Gender%20in%20the%20conservation%20of%20protected%20areas.pdf accessed 12 October, 2019.
- 36.
Melissa Petruzzello, ‘Chipko movement: Indian Environmental Movement’ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chipko-movement accessed 20 November, 2019.
- 37.
Urvi C. Gupta, Pradeep U. Verma & Hitesh A. Solanki “Role of Ethnic women in Biodiversity Conservation” 2014 (3) 2 International Journal of Research and Development in Pharmacy & Life Sciences 856.
- 38.
Petruzzello (n 36).
- 39.
Gupta et al. (n 37) 856–857.
- 40.
Kay Lehman Schlozman et al., Gender and Citizen Participation: Is There a Different Voice? 1995 (39) 2 American Journal of Political Science 267–293, 269.
- 41.
Agarwal (n 34) 6.
- 42.
Ibid. 21.
- 43.
European Capacity Building Initiatives (ecbi), Pocket Guide to Gender Equality under the UNFCCC (ecbi 2018) 9. https://wedo.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/2018-Edition-of-Pocket-Guide-to-Gender_1.pdf accessed 25 November, 2019.
- 44.
Speech by Mary Robinson, UN Special Envoy on Climate Change, at COP 21. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/08/cop21-is-too-male-dominated-and-has-male-priorities-says-un-special-envoy accessed 25 September, 2019.
- 45.
Ibid. 13.
- 46.
Ibid. 14.
- 47.
Lere Amusan and Oluwole Olutola, ‘Contextualising African Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture: Challenges from Climate Change and Mineral Extraction Perspectives’ 2017 (18) 4 Journal of International Women Studies 117–130, 117.
- 48.
Annelieke Douma, ‘Towards a workable approach to mainstream gender in natural resources management’ Both ENDS Working Paper Series, January 2012, 8 https://www.bothends.org/uploaded_files/document/120125_Workable_approach_to_gender_report_FINAL.pdf accessed 17 July, 2019.
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
Sylvia Tamale, ‘Gender trauma in Africa: enhancing women’s links to resources’ 2004 (48) 1 Journal of African Law 50–61 at 51–54, 56.
- 52.
What is Gender Equality? Gender Equality in Ireland http://genderequality.ie/en/GE/Pages/WhatisGE accessed 5 October, 2018.
- 53.
David Le Blanc, ‘Towards integration at last? The sustainable development goals as a network of targets’ 2015 DESA Working paper no. 141 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 3.
- 54.
Refer to SDGS 1, 2, 4 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 and 17. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ accessed 19 November, 2019.
- 55.
Janet G. Stotsky et al., ‘Trends in gender equality and women’s advancement’ 2016 IMF working paper no.16/21 pg. 4. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/wp1621.pdf accessed on 30 August, 2019.
- 56.
Lee G Bolman and Terrence E Deal, Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (6th edition, Jossey – Bass 2017) 351; See notes 51–54 (on which women can be considered for involvement in the decision-making processes).
- 57.
Women were noted to hold six of the most influential positions in environmental negotiation in 2016 as compared to two in 2015 ‘Gender Equality in Political Decision-making’ (EIGE). May 17, 2017 https://eige.europa.eu/rdc/eige-publications/gender-equality-political-decision-making accessed 16 January, 2019.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Karen Morrow, ‘Ecofeminism and the Environment: International Law and Climate Change’ in Margaret Davies and Vanesa E. Munro (eds), The Ashgate Research Companion to Feminist Legal Theory (Ashgate Publishing Co. 2013) 377–393 at 384.
- 60.
Women and Gender Constituency, ‘About Us’ http://womengenderclimate.org/about-us/ accessed 31 January, 2019.
- 61.
Decision 1/CP.16, Part I, para. 7; Part III para. E, FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010.
- 62.
Sumudu Atapattu Human Rights and Climate Change (2015) 204 & 206.
- 63.
Ibid. 8.
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
Ibid.
- 66.
Decision 3/CP.23 FCCC/CP/2017/11/Add.1 8 February 2018. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-third session, held in Bonn from 6 to 18 November 2017.
- 67.
Charlotte Kabaseke and Emma Charlene Lubaale, ‘Making a case for recognition of women’s contribution in the legal framework for environmental conservation (in Uganda)’ 2019 (3) Stellenbosch Law Review (forthcoming).
- 68.
Ibid.
- 69.
Para. 12, preamble.
- 70.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Indigenous women and the Convention on Biodiversity: Work of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity with indigenous women (2000–2005) 2.
- 71.
Point K, paragraph 253 (c), Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.
- 72.
Gender Plan of Action. Item 4.13. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/24 9 October 2008, 9th meeting, Bonn, Germany.
- 73.
Barbara Clabots & Lorena Aguillar, Gender and biodiversity: Analysis of women and gender equality considerations in National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) (IUCN 2017) 18.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
Ibid. IV.
- 76.
IUCN Gender and Biodiversity (ICUN 2008) 1 & 2 http://www.wocan.org/system/tdf/iucn_fact_sheet_linking_gender_and_biodiversity.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=202 accessed 17 October, 2019.
- 77.
Aditya (n 13) 142.
- 78.
CEDAW article 7 (b) and (c).
- 79.
CEDAW General Recommendation no. 23: Political and Public life, 1997, A/52/38, para 5 http://www.refworld.org.docid/453883a622.html accessed 15 October, 2019.
- 80.
CEDAW article 14 (2) (a).
- 81.
CEDAW report sect. III.A.1.
- 82.
A/62/214 para. 84.
- 83.
Statement of the CEDAW committee on Gender and Climate Change, CEDAW 44th session, New York, 20th July–7th August 2009unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/smsn/igo/064.pdf. Accessed 02 August, 2018.
- 84.
CEDAW committee general recommendation No. 27 (2010) paras. 25 and 35.
- 85.
Preamble.
- 86.
Comm. No. 155/96 (2001).
- 87.
Ibid.
- 88.
Amusan and Olutola (n 47) 1.
- 89.
African Union, ‘High Level Consultation on the Ratification of the Maputo Protocol’ https://au.int/en/newsevents/20180129/high-level-consultation-ratification-maputo-protocol accessed 26 November, 2019.
- 90.
Manisuli Ssenyonjo, ‘Domestic protection and promotion of human rights under the 1995 Ugandan Constitution’ 2002 (20) 4 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 445–484 at 481.
- 91.
See, Charlotte Kabaseke, ‘Justice for Rape Victims in Uganda: Definitional Crises and Errors of Justice in Prosecuting Rape cases’ in Michael Addaney, Women and Minority Rights Law in Africa: Reimagining Equality and Addressing Discrimination (Eleven Publishing International 2019) 78.
- 92.
Article 2(1).
- 93.
1995 Constitution, objectives II, III, V & VI.
- 94.
Ssenyonjo (n 90) 456.
- 95.
Ibid.
- 96.
Article 21.
- 97.
Manisuli Ssenjonjo, ‘Culture and the Human Rights of Women in Africa: Between Light and Shadow’ 2007 (51) 1 Journal of African Law 39–67 at 41, 49, 66.
- 98.
CEDAW Committee, Concluding Observations: Uganda A/57/38 (23 August 2002), para. 154.
- 99.
CEDAW Concluding Observations: Mali CEDAW /C/MLI/CO/5 (3 February 2006) at para 17; Egypt A/56/38 (2 February 2001) at para 325; Cameroon A/55/38 (26 June 2000) at paras 53–54; Democratic Republic of Congo A/55/38 (1 February 2000) at paras 230–32; Guinea A/56/38 (31 July 2001) at paras 122 and 138; United Republic of Tanzania A/53/38/ Revl (6 July 1998) at paras 229–30; CESCR Concluding Observations: Zambia E/C12/1/Add106 (23 June 2005) at para 10, noting that “the persistence of customs and traditions harmful to women” is one of the factors impeding the implementation of the International Covenant on Economic and Social Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
- 100.
Ssenyonjo (n 97) 65.
- 101.
Article 38.
- 102.
Article 32 (1).
- 103.
Equal Opportunities Commission Act (2007) (Uganda) Section 2.
- 104.
Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (Uganda) https://www.parliament.go.ug/page/cabinet-members-and-ministers-state accessed 26 November, 2019.
- 105.
Composition of the 10th Parliament of Uganda as at 12th April, 2018. https://www.parliament.go.ug/sites/default/files/COMPOSITION%20OF%20THE%2010TH%20PARLIAMENT%20AS%20AT%2012%20APRIL%202018.pdf accessed 26, November, 2019.
- 106.
Parliamentary Forum on Climate Change (PFCC) (Uganda) https://www.parliament.go.ug/page/parliamentary-forum-climate-change-pfcc accessed on November 26, 2019.
- 107.
Parliamentary Forum on Oil and Gas (PFOG) (Uganda) https://www.parliament.go.ug/page/parliamentary-forum-oil-and-gas accessed 26 November, 2019.
- 108.
Act no. 5 of 2019 (Uganda).
- 109.
Long title to the NEA (2019).
- 110.
Act no. 5 of 2019 (Uganda) Section 25.
- 111.
NEA (2019) Sections 8 and 9; National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) State of the Environment Report for Uganda 2014 (2014) 8–9.
- 112.
Rose Mwebaza, ‘Improving Environmental Procedural Rights in Uganda’ in Marianela Cedeno Bonilla et al., Environmental Law in Developing Countries IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 43. Vol. II (IUCN 2004) 50.
- 113.
Ibid.
- 114.
Ibid.
- 115.
Ibid.
- 116.
Section 9 (2) (r) and (s) recognizes the binding effect of the Environmental Conventions Uganda has ratified.
- 117.
Section 12 (4).
- 118.
NEMA Board of Directors, National Environment Management Authority (Uganda) https://www.nema.go.ug/aboutus/nema-board-directors accessed 26 November, 2019.
- 119.
Section 12 (2).
- 120.
NEA Section 5(2)(b).
- 121.
NEA Section 5 (2)(b).
- 122.
Government of Uganda (GOU) Environment and natural resources sub-sector gender mainstreaming strategy 2016–2021 (2016) 2.
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Kabaseke, C. (2020). Women’s Right to Participation in Environmental Decision-Making in Uganda. In: Addaney, M., Oluborode Jegede, A. (eds) Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_12
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_12
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