Abstract
The chapter offers a new approach towards the understanding of Islamic FBOs by looking at their multiple relatedness. Based on empirical data from Tanzania he highlights limitations of current typologies of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well as faith-based organisations (FBOs). Undoing classical typologies he argues for a typology based on additive relations to ensure the organisations sustainability. Using the case study of The Islamic Foundation (TIF) he portraits one type of organisational relatedness that is characterised by relational ties to entrepreneurship and a competitive market economy, leading to a process of ‘enterprisation’ of some Islamic FBOs. While drawing attention to dynamics that have so far been of less attention in the research on Islamic charity and development aid, he provides new impulses to current NGO/ FBO debates as well as to new conceptual framings in African studies such as ‘Africa Multiple’.
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Notes
- 1.
The empirical data was collected during nine month of fieldwork in Tanzania in the years of 2015 and 2016. The author is grateful to the ‘Bayreuth International Graduate School of Advanced African Studies’ (BIGSAS) as well as the ‘Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes’ for their support for the authors dissertation at the University of Bayreuth. For further articles that were produced in this context see as well Sebastian Müller, “Islamische Wohltätigkeit und Entwicklungsorganisationen: Grundlagen des Engagements und exemplarische Einblicke in die Praxis,” in Armut und Gerechtigkeit: Christliche und islamische Perspektiven, eds. Christian Ströbele, Anja Middelbeck-Varwick, Amir Dziri and Muna Tatari (Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 2016), 202–215; Sebastian Müller, “Krisen und Glaube: Streiflichter islamischer Nothilfe und langfristiger Entwicklungsmaßnahmen im Namen des Islams,” in Krisenhilfe oder Hilfe in Krisen? eds. Rainer Öhlschläger and Hartmut Sangmeister (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2016), 97–115. The author furthermore thanks Alžběta Šváblová and Holger Weiss for their valuable comments on the chapter and especially the staff of The Islamic Foundation of Tanzania (TIF) for their willingness to share time and insights.
- 2.
The Islamic Foundation—Facebook, “Info—The Islamic Foundation—Based in Tanzania: Facebook Profile—About”, https://www.facebook.com/pg/islamicftz/about/?ref=page_internal (accessed December 12, 2017); The Islamic Foundation, “DAA’WAH DEPARTMENT”, http://islamicftz.org/daawah-department/ (accessed February 16, 2016); The Islamic Foundation. “Homepage”, http://islamicftz.org (accessed August 28, 2017).
- 3.
For further details see https://www.africamultiple.uni-bayreuth.de/en/.
- 4.
See further Manfred Glagow, Die Nicht-Regierungs-Organisationen als die neuen Hoffnungsträger in der internationalen Entwicklungspolitik? Forschungsschwerpunkt Entwicklungssoziologie Working Paper 169 (Bielefeld: Universität Bielefeld, 1992); Dieter Nohlen and Franz Nuscheler, eds., Handbuch der Dritten Welt: Grundprobleme, Theorien, Strategien, 3rd ed. (Bonn: Verlag J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., 1992).
- 5.
See further Jörg Haustein and Emma Tomalin, “Religion and Development in Africa and Asia,” in Routledge Handbook of Africa–Asia Relations, eds. Pedro A. Raposo, David Arase and Scarlett Cornelissen (London, New York: Routledge, 2018), 76–93; Emma Tomalin, Religions and Development (London and New York: Routledge, 2013).
- 6.
Gerard Clarke, “Faith-Based Organizations and International Development: An Overview,” in Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and the Secular, eds. Gerard Clarke and Michael Jennings (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 17–45.
- 7.
Jonathan Benthall, “Islamic Charities, Faith Based organizations, and the International Aid System,” in Understanding Islamic charities, eds. Jon B. Alterman and Karin v. Hippel (Washington, DC: CSIS Press, 2007), 1–14; Robert Lacey and Jonathan Benthall, eds., Gulf Charities and Islamic Philanthropy in the “Age of Terror” and Beyond (Berlin and London: Gerlach Press, 2014).
- 8.
Mayke Kaag, “Aid, Umma, and Politics: Transnational Islamic NGOs in Chad,” in Islam and Muslim politics in Africa, 1st ed., 85–102 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 86.
- 9.
Abdallah Ali Duh, “Muslim faith-Based Organizations in Somalia and Kenya: Activities, Faith Inspired Development and Securitization”, http://afrikansarvi.fi/72-artikkeli/208-muslim-faith-based-organizations-in-somalia-and-kenya (accessed November 27, 2014); Cecilia Lynch, “Local and Global Influences on Islamic NGOs in Kenya,” Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 6, no. 1 (2011): 21–34; Nabila Saddiq, “Capacity Building and Islamic FBOs: Insights from Malawi,” Praxis Note 48, https://www.intrac.org/resources/praxis-note-48-capacity-building-islamic-fbos-insights-malawi/.
- 10.
Abdallah C. Ahmed, “Networks of Islamic NGOs in sub-Saharan Africa: Bilal Muslim Mission, African Muslim Agency (Direct Aid), and ‘al-Haramayn’,” Journal of Eastern African Studies, no. 3 (2009): 426–437; Hansjörg Dilger, “Religion and the Formation of an Urban Educational Market: Transnational Reform Processes and Social Inequalities in Christian and Muslim Schooling in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” Journal of Religion in Africa 43, no. 4 (2013): 451–479; Kristina Dohrn, “Translocal Ethics: Hizmet Teachers and the Formation of Gülen-inspired Schools in Urban Tanzania,” Sociology of Islam 1, no. 3–4 (2014): 233–256; Roman Loimeier, “Trajectories of Islamic Education in the Twentieth Century: Zanzibar and Beyond,” in Muslim Institutions of Higher Education in Postcolonial Africa, eds. Mbaye Lo and Muhammed Haron (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 63–72. Further individual references are provided by Issa G. Shivji, “Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What We Are, What We Are Not, and What We Ought to Be,” Development in Practice 14, no. 5 (2004): 689–695; Robert Leurs, Peter Tumaini-Mungu and Abu Mvungi, Mapping the Development Activities of Faith-Based Organizations in Tanzania, Religions and Development Working Paper 58 (Birmingham: International Development Department University of Birmingham, 2011); Ernest T. Mallya, “Faith-Based Organizations, the State and Politics in Tanzania,” in Development and Politics from Below: Exploring Religious Spaces in the African State, eds. Barbara Bompani and Maria Frahm-Arp (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 131–151,; Amos Mhina, ed., Religions and Development in Tanzania: A Preliminary Literature Review, Religions and Development Working Paper 11 (Birmingham: International Development Department, University of Birmingham, 2007).
- 11.
Helmust K. Anheier and Lester M. Salamon, “Genese und Schwerpunkte internationaler Forschung zum Nonprofit-Sektor: Von der Fller-Kommission zum Johns Hopkins Projekt,” Forschungsjournal Neue Soziale Bewegungen 4 (1992): 40–48; Julie Hearn, “African NGOs: The New Compradors?” Development and Change 38, no. 6 (2007): 1095–1110; David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji, Non-governmental Organizations and Development (London, New York: Routledge, 2009); Dieter Neubert, Entwicklungspolitische Hoffnungen und gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit: Eine vergleichende Länderfallstudie von Nicht-Regierungsorganisationen in Kenia und Ruanda (Frankfurt/Main, New York: Campus, 1997).
- 12.
Shawn T. Flanigan, “Factors Influencing Nonprofit Career Choice in Faith-Based and Secular NGOs in three Developing Countries,” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 21, no. 1 (2010): 59–75; Rolf Sülzer and Arthur Zimmermann, Abschied vom Planungswahn: Neue und alte Organisationsfragen der Internationalen Zusammenarbeit. 2. Aufl., vollst. bearb., aktualisierte und erw. Fassung (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2013); Janet G. Townsend, Gina Porter, and Emma Mawdsley, “The Role of the Transnational Community of Non-government Organizations: Governance or Poverty Reduction?” Journal of International Development 14, no. 6 (2002): 829–839.
- 13.
Daniel Schwenger, Organisation internationaler Nichtregierungsorganisationen: Aufbau und Koordination von NGOs im System der Vereinten Nationen (Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 2013).
- 14.
Alan Fowler, “NGOs & the Globalization of Social Welfare: Perspectives from East Africa,” in Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa: The State, NGOs & People’s Organizations in Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda, eds. Joseph Semboja and Ole Therkildsen (Copenhagen: Centre for Development Research, 1995), 51–69; Neubert, Entwicklungspolitische Hoffnungen und gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit; Ronald J. Sider and Heidi R. Unruh, “Typology of Religious Characteristics of Social Service and Educational Organizations and Programs,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 33, no. 1 (2004): 109–134.
- 15.
Gerard Clarke, “Faith-Based Organizations and International Development. An Overview,” in Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and the Secular, eds. Gerard Clarke and Michael Jennings (Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 17–45; M. Clarke and V.-A. Ware, “Understanding Faith-Based Organizations: How FBOs Are Contrasted with NGOs in International Development Literature,” Progress in Development Studies 15, no. 1 (2015): 37–48.
- 16.
Julia Berger, “Religious Nongovernmental Organizations: An Exploratory Analysis,” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 14, no. 1 (2003): 15–39; Wolfgang Bielefeld and William S. Cleveland, “Defining Faith-Based Organizations and Understanding Them Through Research,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 42, no. 3 (2013): 442–467.
- 17.
Ben Jones and Marie J. Petersen, “Instrumental, Narrow, Normative? Reviewing Recent Work on Religion and Development,” Third World Quarterly 32, no. 7 (2011): 1291–1306; Marie J. Petersen, For Humanity or for the Umma? Aid and Islam in Transnational Muslim NGOs (London: Hurst & Company, 2015).
- 18.
Eva Spies, “Being in Relation: A Critical Appraisal of Religious Diversity and Mission Encounter in Madagascar,” Journal of Africana Religions 7, no. 1 (2019): 62.
- 19.
The Islamic Foundation, “The Islamic Foundation—Broshure: Tumeahidi. Tumetimiza,” (The Islamic Foundation, 2014).
- 20.
Spontaneous voluntary giving.
- 21.
Annual obligatory alms-giving on wealth and income.
- 22.
Religious, e.g. pious endowment.
- 23.
Radio-content is posted online, for example, via Soundcloud The Islamic Foundation—Soundcloude, “islamicftz: Radio Imaan Morogoro”, https://soundcloud.com/islamicftz (accessed July 27, 2018) and TV-contend accessible via livestream on watchtv and youtube The Islamic Foundation—WatchTV, “Watch TV Imaan Live TV from Tanzania”, http://thewatchtv.com/watch-tv-imaan-live-tv-from-tanzania/ (accessed July 27, 2018); The Islamic Foundation—Youtube, “islamicftz”, https://www.youtube.com/user/TVIMAAN/featured (accessed July 27, 2018); The Islamic Foundation—Youtube, “islamicftz”.
- 24.
Specifically, TIF has partnered with the Dar el-Ber Society of Dubai and the Sharjah Charity International of the United Arab Emirates, as well as the Sheikh Eid Chairtable Association (also known as Sheikh Eid bin Mohammad Al Thani Charitable Association) of Doha—Qatar.
- 25.
This included, for example, first-aid help, the distribution of food, cloth and shelter after 2016 earthquake in the Kagera-Region.
- 26.
Facilities include ‘Aljamii for Mothers and Child Care’ and ‘Saratein’ Dispensary in Morogoro, as well as other facilities in Mtwara.
- 27.
For the orphans in the homecare programme, the costs of school education and medical care are covered and monthly pocket money is provided. TIF also has three orphan care facilities for children aged five to 13 years. Within the facilities, the orphans are looked after by two up to three supervisors as well as kitchen staff and religious teachers. Two orphanages provide space for 20 girls each, Dar-ul-Rahma (The Abode of Mercy) in Tabora and Dar-ul-Imaan (The Abode of Faith) in Morogoro. Nearly 50 boys are furthermore catered for in the Dar-ul-Imaan (The Abode of Faith) orphanage that operates its own mosque. The children accommodated for in Morogoro are schooling in TIF’s own facilities. In addition, TIF funds University-tuition for more than 10 orphans.
- 28.
These include three pre-primary schools, three primary and one secondary school. Formerly operating two secondary schools those have been merged to one. About 1200 pupils are schooled in the facilities, with boys forming the majority. The schools include in Mtwara the ‘Muzdalifah English Medium’ consisting of a kindergarten a preprimary school and a primary school. In Morogoro TIF operates the ‘Imaan English Medium Nursery and Imaan English Medium Primary’ School. Founded in 1998 under the name ‘Dar al-Arqaam’, this was later renamed ‘Imaan Schools’. According to TIF staff, the name was changed due to confusions with an Islamic seminary of the same name of another organisation within Tanzania. In addition, in 2013, TIF acquired ‘Forest Hill Secondary School’, which merged with the ‘Imaan Secondary’. In 2018, TIF also started building another secondary school in Dodoma.
- 29.
The organisations logo consists of the name of the organisation in Arabic in an upper semi-circle and the name of the organisation in English in a lower semicircle. The centre of the logo forms a book symbol representing the Holy Scriptures of the Qur’an embedded in a stripe pattern that combines the colours red, green, white and black. It is at the same time a reminiscence of the Prophet Muhammad as well as pan-Arab symbolism. It also reflects the colours of the national flag of the United Arab Emirates, from where close international partner organisation originate. Green as the colour of the Islamic faith is at the same time the source of the light or the cognition from which the stripe pattern originates and which underlies the book symbol. On the one hand, this reflects a return to the Qur’an as well as the Sunnah of the Prophet and, on the other hand, a high degree of identification with the Arab-Islamic world.
- 30.
The Islamic Foundation—Facebook, “Info—The Islamic Foundation—Based in Tanzania”, https://www.facebook.com/dif.tanzania/?ref=page_internal (accessed November 11, 2017).
- 31.
As part of targeted group oriented activities, the Dawaah Department is responsible for distributing food donations on religious holidays such as the end of Ramadan and the collection and distribution of zakat. Furthermore, it is officially responsible for the maintenance of the seminary ‘Maahad ul-Imaan’, where almost 100 students received religious education. Moreover, it is offering material support by distributing hijabs, water tanks, Islamic books, sewing machines and motorcycles. The latter project was inaugurated to enable women and men to start their own business as tailor and motor taxi drivers or logisticians. Already in the description of the latter activities overlaps with other departments become clear.
- 32.
The Islamic Foundation, “DAA’WAH DEPARTMENT”, http://islamicftz.org/daawah-department/ (accessed February 16, 2016).
- 33.
For example, government agencies of Shiite Iran were introduced as potential responsible saboteurs for accidents and over 150 deaths, including Shias, during the pilgrimages to Mecca and Media in Saudi Arabia in 2015, see The Islamic Foundation—Imaan Newspaper, “Imaan Newspaper 1”, https://de.scribd.com/doc/285578006/Imaan-Newspaper-issue-1 (accessed December 12, 2017).
- 34.
Similarly, TIF media dissociate themselves from so-called established media. This is expressed, for example, in the credo of TV-Imaan, which propagates the reporting against common stereotypes, which portrays Muslims as terrorists and oppressors of women. Against this, few from many misconceptions the established media spreads and brainwashes the masses, Imaan Media claims to steer against with its program The Islamic Foundation, “Media Department”, http://islamicftz.org/media-department/ (accessed February 16, 2016).
- 35.
Norbert Oberauer, ‘Waqf’ im kolonialen Sansibar: Der Wandel einer islamischen Stiftungspraxis unter britischer Protektoratsherrschaft (Würzburg: Ergon-Verlag, 2012); Abdul Sheriff, “The Records of the ‘Waqf Commission’ as a Soruces of Social and Religious History of Zanzibar,” in Islam in East Africa: New Sources: Archives. Manuscripts and Written Historical Sources. Oral History. Archaeology, International colloquium, Rome, 2–4 December 1999, ed. Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti (Roma: Herder, 2001), 27–45.
- 36.
See also Chapters “Transnational Networks and Global Shi‘i Islamic NGOs in Tanzania” and “Politics of Humanitarianism: The Ahmadiyya and the provision of Social Welfare” in this volume.
- 37.
United Nations, “Least Developed Country Category: United Republic of Tanzania Profile”, https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category-united-republic-of-tanzania.html (accessed April 26, 2019).
- 38.
The Islamic Foundation, “Homepage”, http://islamicftz.org (accessed August 28, 2017).
- 39.
The Islamic Foundation, “Message from Chairman”, http://islamicftz.org/message-from-chairman (accessed August 29, 2017).
- 40.
The Islamic Foundation—Feed, “TIF: RSS Feeds”, http://islamicftz.org/feed/ (accessed July 27, 2018).
- 41.
- 42.
As of August 2018 https://www.instagram.com/islamicftz/ had 760 contributions and 9960 subscribers, in March 2019, the number of subscribers increased to 19,200 with almost 1160 contributions with post to major events that had taken place in the meantime.
- 43.
- 44.
- 45.
The Islamic Foundation—GoogleAppStore, “TV IMAAN App”, https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.islamicftz.tvimaan.tvplayer&hl=en_US (accessed July 27, 2018).
- 46.
For the visit of Wahaj Tarin as an international guest speaker in Tanzania, TIF indicated the following companies as sponsors: Platinum Sponsor: Peoples Bank of Zanzibar (Islamic Banking), Gold Sponsors: Camel - Flour Miles, Afya - Driking Water, Amana Bank, O-GAS, Bakhesa Group /Azam. Silver Sponsors: ASAS Diaries LTD Iringa, ATN, Lake GAS. Bronze sponsors: Morobest, Simbaoil, Usangulu Logistics and AFR-Oil.
- 47.
These include Azam TV-ZBC2 (satellite television station), Horizon TV (Nairobi), Iceland TV (Zanzibar); Mahaasin TV (Mwanza Tanzania), ZCTV (Zanzibar); Radio Ihsaan FM (Tanga) and Radio AL-Noor 93.3 (Zanzibar).
- 48.
See the forthcoming dissertation of the author for a detailed discussion of the individual types.
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Müller, S. (2020). ‘Enterprisation of Islamic FBOs’—Towards a New Typology of Islamic Non-governmental Organisations in Consideration of Their Multiple Relatedness. In: Weiss, H. (eds) Muslim Faith-Based Organizations and Social Welfare in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38308-4_7
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