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What Has the Four Nations and Empire Model Achieved?

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The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History

Part of the book series: Britain and the World ((BAW))

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Abstract

The reinvention of British imperial studies over the last twenty-five years has occurred in a number of productive ways. The ‘decentring’ of previous frameworks which stressed dichotomous dynamics of ‘core’ and ‘periphery’, ‘coloniser’ and ‘colonised’, ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’, ‘European’ and ‘Other’, to name but a few, has resulted in an intellectual landscape where historical assumptions about the nature of empire have been thoroughly dismantled. This article explores one such moment of decentring by considering the development of a four nations perspective on the British Empire. It charts the origins of Professor John M. MacKenzie’s espousal of such an approach and stresses how it represents a telling example of the way in which histories of the empire remain acutely sensitive to current and contemporary issues. The chapter considers and reflects on the successes and limitations the four nations and empire model and argues that its real potential remains as yet unfulfilled, not least through a tendency for historians of Britain and Ireland to compare the various polities and societies of the British-Irish Isles in consistently partial ways. It notes few genuine four nations and empires studies exist as yet, and ends by suggesting that one way round this might be to use the model’s recalibrating of the ‘national’ to develop new comparative family, network, regional and locality studies that can fully explore the many and manifold ways the empire remade Britain and Ireland through the centuries of its existence.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Empire and Metropolitan Cultures’, in Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume III: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 270–93; and Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 5–23.

  2. 2.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? A Four-Nation Approach to the History of the British Empire’, History Compass 6 (1998), 1244–63; and John M. MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? The Historiography of a Four-Nations Approach to the History of the British Empire’, in Catherine Hall and Keith McClelland, eds., Race, Nation and Empire: Making Histories, 1750 to the Present (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010), 133–53.

  3. 3.

    Richard J. Finlay, ‘New Britain, New Scotland, New History? The Impact of Devolution on the Development of Scottish Historiography’, Journal of Contemporary History 36 (2001), 383–93; Richard J. Finlay, ‘Does History Matter? Political Scientists, Welsh and Scottish Devolution’, Twentieth-Century British History 122 (2010), 243–50; and Paul O’Leary, ‘“A Vertiginous Sense of Impending Loss”: Four Nations History and the Problem of Narrative’, in Naomi Lloyd-Jones and Margaret M. Scull, eds., Four Nations Approaches to Modern ‘British’ History: A (Dis)United Kingdom? (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 63–64.

  4. 4.

    MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? [2008]’, 1244.

  5. 5.

    H. J. Hanham, Scottish Nationalism (London: Faber, 1969), 212; T. M. Devine, ‘The Break-Up of Britain? Scotland and the End of Empire’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 16 (2006), 165.

  6. 6.

    John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, 5th edn (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 15.

  7. 7.

    The literature on the link between history and globalization, as well as the latter’s early twenty-first century crisis, is too extensive to note in detail. For an excellent introduction on the need to historicise understandings of globalization see A. G. Hopkins, ‘The History of Globalization—And the Globalization of History?’, in A. G. Hopkins, ed., Globalization in World History (London: Pimlico, 2002), 11–38. For the use of history in contemporary debate see Alan Freeman and Boris Kagarlitsky, ‘Introduction: World Empire—Or a World of Empires?’, in Alan Freeman and Boris Kagarlitsky, eds., The Politics of Empire: Globalisation in Crisis (London: Ann Arbor, 2004), 1–45.

  8. 8.

    See Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (London: Penguin, 2003); Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (London: Penguin, 2004); and Bernard Porter, Empire and Superempire: Britain, America and the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).

  9. 9.

    Andrew Bonnell, and Martin Crotty, ‘Australia’s History Under Howard, 1996–2007’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 617 (2004), 149–65; Luke Pearson, ‘Don’t Tell Me to “Get Over” a Colonialism That Is Still Being Implemented Today’, Guardian, 2 April 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/commentisfree/2016/apr/02/dont-tell-me-to-get-over-a-colonialism-that-is-still-being-implemented-today [accessed 27 October 2017]; Shashi Tharoor, Inglorious Empire What the British Did to India (London: Penguin, 2017), passim; Johann Hari, ‘The Truth? Our Empire Killed Millions’, Independent, 18 June 2006, http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/johann-hari/johann-hari-the-truth-our-empire-killed-millions-404631.html [accessed 30 October 2017]. For an example of MacKenzie’s contribution to this debate see John M. MacKenzie, ‘View Point: Why Britain Does Not Owe Reparations to India’, BBC, 28 July 2015, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-33647422 [accessed 13 July 2017].

  10. 10.

    For a brilliant and provocative summary of the literature on the place (or otherwise) of empire in post-imperial Britain, see Paul Gilroy, Postcolonial Melancholia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004). Cultural commentary on the underlying motives for Britain’s June 2016 vote to leave the European Union routinely highlights the inability of British society to move on from the shadow of empire. See Gary Younge, ‘Britain’s Imperial Fantasies Have Given Us Brexit’, Guardian, 3 February 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/feb/03/imperial-fantasies-brexit-theresa-may [accessed 10 February 2018].

  11. 11.

    John M. MacKenzie, and Bryan S. Glass, ‘Introduction’, in John M. MacKenzie and Bryan S. Glass, eds., Scotland, Empire and Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 17–18.

  12. 12.

    Liam McIlvanney, and Ray Ryan, ‘Introduction’, in Liam McIlvanney and Ray Ryan, eds., Ireland and Scotland: Culture and Society, 1700–1800 (Dublin: Four Courts, 2005), 11–22; and Naomi Lloyd-Jones, and Margaret Scull, ‘A New Plea for an Old Subject? Four Nations History for the Modern Period’, in Naomi Lloyd-Jones and Margaret Scull, eds., Four Nations Approaches to Modern ‘British’ History: A (Dis)United Kingdom? (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 14–15.

  13. 13.

    MacKenzie, ‘Empire and Metropolitan Cultures’, 231.

  14. 14.

    David Marquad, ‘How United Is the Modern United Kingdom?’, in Alexander Grant and Keith Stringer, eds., Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History (Abingdon: Routledge, 1995), 286–87; Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited (London: Verso, 1997), 183–209; and Christopher Harvie, ‘The Moment of British Nationalism, 1939–1970’, Political Quarterly 71 (2000), 328–40.

  15. 15.

    See Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (London: Pimlico, 1992); and Linda Colley, Acts of Union and Disunion: What Has Held the U.K. Together—And What Is Dividing It? (London: Profile, 2014).

  16. 16.

    For a comprehensive and critical survey of the ‘New Imperial History’ see Stephen Howe, The New Imperial Histories Reader (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 1–21.

  17. 17.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Edward Said and the Historians’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1994), 9–25; and Antoinette Burton, ‘Who Needs the Nation? Interrogating “British” History’, in Catherine Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire: A Reader (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 44.

  18. 18.

    Kathleen Wilson, ‘Introduction: Histories, Empires, Modernities’, in Kathleen Wilson, ed., A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernist in Britain and the Empire, 1660–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 3–4; Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose, ‘Introduction: Being at Home with the Empire’, in Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose, eds., At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 13–14; Burton, ‘Who Needs the Nation?’, 137–38.

  19. 19.

    For one of the earliest, and most effective, critiques of the New Imperial History, see Richard Price, ‘One Big Thing: Britain, Its Empire, and Their Imperial Culture’, Journal of British Studies 45 (2008), 602–27, especially 614.

  20. 20.

    Peter Burroughs, ‘John Robert Seeley and British Imperial History’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1 (1973), 191–211; and MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? [2010]’, 137–41.

  21. 21.

    Keith Robbins, ‘An Imperial and Multinational Polity: The “Scene from the Centre”, 1832–1922’, in Alexander Grant and Keith Stringer, eds., Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History (Abingdon: Routledge, 1995), 244–46.

  22. 22.

    C. A. Bayly, ‘Ireland, India and the Empire: 1780–1914’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Series, 10 (2000), 377–97; and Sean Ryder, ‘Ireland, India and Popular Nationalism in the Early Nineteenth Century’, in Tadhg Foley and Maureen O’ Connor, eds., Ireland and India: Colonies, Culture, and Empire (Dublin: Four Courts, 2006), 12–25.

  23. 23.

    Colin Kidd, Union and Unionisms: Political Thought in Scotland, 1500–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 23–28.

  24. 24.

    Alvin Jackson, The Two Unions: Ireland, Scotland, and the Survival of the United Kingdom, 1707–2007 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 121–214.

  25. 25.

    Burroughs, ‘John Robert Seeley and British Imperial History’, 205; and Andrew Mycock and Marina Loskoutova, ‘Nation, State and Empire: The Historiography of “High Imperialism” in the British and Russian Empires’, in Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz, eds., Nationalizing the Past: Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 246 and 252.

  26. 26.

    Charles Wentworth Dilke, Greater Britain; A Record of Travel in English-Speaking Countries During 1866 and 1867 (London and New York: Harper, 1869), 360–61.

  27. 27.

    See William Jordan Rattray, The Scots in British North America, 4 vols. (Toronto: Maclear, 1880); and John Hill Burton, The Scot Abroad, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1864). Interestingly, only the second of Burton’s volumes dealt with movement to colonial destinations. In that respect his first volume, which explored centuries-long Scottish human mobility and links with France, is a classic example of the use of diaspora to shore up concepts of Scotland as a nation.

  28. 28.

    Catriona Macdonald, ‘Imagining the Scottish Diaspora: Emigration and Transnational Literature in the Late Modern Period’, Britain and the World 5 (2012), 20–21.

  29. 29.

    MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? [2010]’, 135.

  30. 30.

    Catherine Hall, ‘Introduction: Thinking the Postcolonial, Thinking the Empire’, in Catherine, ed., Cultures of Empire: Colonisers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 23.

  31. 31.

    John M. Mackenzie, ‘On Scotland and the Empire’, International History Review 15 (1993), 714–24.

  32. 32.

    John G. A. Pocock, ‘British History: A Plea for a New Subject’, Journal of Modern History 47 (1975), 601–21; McBride, ‘J.G.A. Pocock and the Politics of British History’, in Naomi Lloyd-Jones and Margaret M. Scull, eds., Four Nations Approaches to Modern ‘British’ History: A (Dis)United Kingdom? 33–58.

  33. 33.

    See John M. MacKenzie with Nigel R. Dalziel, The Scots in South Africa: Ethnicity, Identity, Gender, and Race, 1772–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007).

  34. 34.

    Porter, Absent-Minded Imperialists, 13–16.

  35. 35.

    Bernard Porter, ‘Further Thoughts on Absent-Mindedness’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36 (2008), 101–17; and John M. MacKenzie, ‘“Comfort” and Conviction: A Response to Bernard Porter’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36 (2008), 659–68.

  36. 36.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Empire and National Identities: The Case of Scotland’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 82 (1998), 30.

  37. 37.

    For an excellent recent survey that adopts an explicitly four nations and empire approach for the whole period from 1688 to 2015 see Susan Kingsley Kent, A New History of Britain Since 1688: Four Nations and an Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), especially Chapters 2, 4, and 7.

  38. 38.

    For an example of the intersections of a four nations and four nations and empire approach for the early phase of imperial expansion, see Nicholas Canny, ‘Introduction’, in Nicholas Canny, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume I: The Origins of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 7–18.

  39. 39.

    For examples of scholarship sensitive to the place of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland in the empire, see C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 (Harlow: Longman, 1989), Chapters 3–5; Angus Calder, Revolutionary Empire: The Rise of the English Speaking Empires from the Fifteenth Century to the 1780s (London: Pimlico, 1998), 226–87; Huw V. Bowen, Elites, Enterprise and the Making of the British Overseas Empire, 1688–1775 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), 154–55; and Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of American Independence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 166–202.

  40. 40.

    Lloyd-Jones, and Scull, ‘A New Plea for an Old Subject?’, 14; and O’Leary, ‘A Vertiginous Sense of Impending Loss’, 71–73.

  41. 41.

    C. A. Bayly, ‘The British and Indigenous Peoples, 1760–1860: Power, Perception, and Identity’, in Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern, eds., Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600–1850 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 21.

  42. 42.

    Gregory A. Barton, ‘The British Model of World History’, Britain and the World 53 (2012), 8–11.

  43. 43.

    Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536–1966 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1975), passim; MacKenzie, ‘Empire and National Identities’, 219 and 230; and Amanda Behm, Imperial History and the Global Politics of Exclusion: Britain, 1880–1940 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 31.

  44. 44.

    Colley, Acts of Union and Disunion, 147–56.

  45. 45.

    Price, ‘One Big Thing’, 604.

  46. 46.

    Antoinette Burton, ‘Who Needs the Nation?’, 138–42; Antoinette Burton, ‘When Was Britain? Nostalgia for the Nation at the End of the “American Century”’, Journal of Modern History 75 (2003), 365 and 367–69.

  47. 47.

    See Michael Fry, The Scottish Empire (East Linton, East Lothian: Tuckwell, 2001); T. M. Devine, Scotland’s Empire, 1600–1815 (London: Allen Lane, 2003); T. M. Devine, To the Ends of the Earth: Scotland’s Global Diaspora, 1750–2010 (London: Allen Lane, 2011); John M. MacKenzie, and T. M. Devine, eds., The Oxford History of the British Empire: Scotland and the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); and Bryan S. Glass, The Scottish Nation at Empire’s End (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

  48. 48.

    Porter, Absent-Minded Imperialists, 147; and Porter, ‘Further Thoughts on Absent-Mindedness’, 102.

  49. 49.

    Kevin Kenny, ‘Ireland and the British Empire: An Introduction’, in Kevin Kenny, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire: Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1–7.

  50. 50.

    Barry Crosbie, Irish Imperial Networks: Migration, Social Communication and Exchange in Nineteenth-Century India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 1–23; and Barry Crosbie, ‘Networks of Empire: Linkage and Reciprocity in Nineteenth-Century Irish and Indian History’, History Compass 7 (2009), 1003.

  51. 51.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘“The Second City of the Empire”: Glasgow—Imperial Municipality’, in Felix Driver and David Gilbert, eds., Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 215–37; and MacKenzie and Devine, Scotland and the British Empire, 26–27.

  52. 52.

    Huw V. Bowen, ‘Introduction’, in Huw V. Bowen, ed., Wales and the British Overseas Empire: Interactions and Influences, 1650–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 8.

  53. 53.

    See Chris Evans, Slave Wales: The Welsh and Atlantic Slavery, 1660–1850 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2010), passim; and Ann Rees Lowri, ‘Welsh Sojourners in India: The East India Company, Networks and Patronage, c. 1760–1840’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 55 (2017), 166–70.

  54. 54.

    Huw V. Bowen, ‘Asiatic Interactions: India, the East India Company and the Welsh Economy, c. 1750–1830’, in Huw V. Bowen, ed., Wales and the British Overseas Empire: Interactions and Influences, 1650–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 168–92.

  55. 55.

    Gwyn A. Williams, The Welsh in Their History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1982), 143–45; Chris Evans, ‘Wales, Munster and the English South West: Contrasting Articulations with the Atlantic World’, in Huw V. Bowen, ed., Wales and the British Overseas Empire: Interactions and Influences, 1650–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 40–61; and David Dickson, Old World Colony: Cork and South Munster 1630–1830 (Cork: Cork University Press, 2005), passim.

  56. 56.

    Alex Murdoch, British History, 1660–1832: National Identity and Local Culture (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1988), 8–14.

  57. 57.

    See Kyle Hughes, The Scots in Victorian and Edwardian Belfast: A Study in Elite Migration (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013).

  58. 58.

    Murray G. H. Pittock, Scottish Nationality (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 84–85.

  59. 59.

    See Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

  60. 60.

    Margot Finn, ‘Anglo-Indian Lives in the Later Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries’, Journal of Eighteenth-Century Studies 33 (2010), 49–65; and Emma Rothschild, The Inner Life of Empires: An Eighteenth-Century History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), passim.

  61. 61.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Presbyterianism and Scottish Identity in Global Context’, Britain and the World 10 (2017), 88–112; and Joseph Sramek, ‘Rethinking Britishness: Religion and Debates About the “Nation” in Company India, 1813–1857’, Journal of British Studies 54 (2015), 822–43, especially 824.

  62. 62.

    MacKenzie, ‘Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? [2008]’, 1254–55. For an example of such scholarship, see Stephanie Barczewski, Country Houses and the British Empire, 1700–1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014).

  63. 63.

    Stephen Constantine, ‘In Search of the English and Englishness’, in Lyndon Fraser and Angela McCarthy, eds., Far from ‘Home’: The English in New Zealand (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2012), 15–38; and Tanja Bueltmann, David Gleeson, and Donald MacRaild, Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012), passim. See also Ian Baucom, Out of Place: Englishness, Empire and the Locations of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 5–14.

  64. 64.

    For an excellent early introduction to a now rapidly developing subset of British and British imperial history, see Carl Bridge and Kent Fedorwich, ‘Mapping the British World’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 31 (2003) 1–15.

  65. 65.

    David Hancock, Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735–1785 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 20–21 and 41; Zoe Laidlaw, Connecting Colonies: Metropole and Professions, 1815–1845 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), Chapter 2; Angela McCarthy, ed., A Global Clan: Scottish Migrant Networks and Identities Since the Eighteenth Century (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), passim; and Natasha Glaisyer, ‘Networking: Trade and Exchange in the Eighteenth-Century British Empire’, Historical Journal 47 (2004), 451–75.

  66. 66.

    Gary B. Magee, and Andrew Thompson, Empire and Globalisation: Networks of People, Goods and Capital in the British World, c. 1850–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 16–17, 45, and 82–89.

  67. 67.

    Nicholas Draper, The Price of Emancipation: Slave Ownership, Compensation and British Society at the End of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), passim. More generally see: https://www.ucl.uk/lbs/ [accessed 28 May 2018].

  68. 68.

    Sara Caput, ‘Scotland, Scottishness, British Integration and the Royal Navy’, Scottish Historical Review 97 (2018), 87–88.

  69. 69.

    Andrew Thomson, The Empire Strikes Back? The Impact of Imperialism on Britain from the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Harlow: Longman, 2005), 2, 60–63, and 197–202.

  70. 70.

    James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settlement Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo-World, 1783–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 58.

  71. 71.

    See John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

  72. 72.

    John M. MacKenzie, ‘Brexit: The View from Scotland’, The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 105 (2016), 577–79.

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    Andrew Mackillop

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    Stephanie Barczewski

  2. School of History, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

    Martin Farr

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Mackillop, A. (2019). What Has the Four Nations and Empire Model Achieved?. In: Barczewski, S., Farr, M. (eds) The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24459-0_12

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