Abstract
Although energy security plays an increasingly prominent role in Euro-Atlantic agendas, concerns over European countries’ dependence on Russian gas have overshadowed energy security challenges in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean regions. Reliable energy exports from the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean are not only important for Europe’s energy security but also vital for the resilience of states and societies in the Maghreb and the Middle East. In order to mitigate the risks of unrest in the Southern Mediterranean, EU and NATO member states should also consider the repercussions of their energy policies on the economies of countries in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean.
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Notes
- 1.
The countries analysed in this chapter are located in full or for the most part outside of Europe and that have a Mediterranean shoreline: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey. This region is referred to as ‘Southern and Eastern Mediterranean’ or ‘SEMED’, the acronym adopted by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD).
- 2.
In the Persian Gulf, hydrocarbons are primarily exported to world markets through coastal terminals.
- 3.
The indicator Total Primary Energy Supply per Capita (TPES/Pop) shows the energy intensity of the country (in this context, supply needs to be understood as supply to the country, so it is in fact an indicator of energy usage rather than production). The indicator ‘TPES/GDP’, on the other hand, shows the energy intensity of the country’s economy.
- 4.
The indicator ‘CO2/TPES’ shows the carbon intensity of the country’s energy mix (how much carbon is contained in every unit of energy supplied to the country), ‘CO2/Pop’ shows carbon emissions per capita and CO2/GDP the carbon intensity of the country’s economy.
- 5.
This makes Algeria the 16th country in the world for oil reserves.
- 6.
Hassi Messaoud, Hassi ‘r Mel (also the country’s largest gas field) and Ourhoud have combined oil reserves of 9.5 billion barrels (close to 80% of the country’s total).
- 7.
The advanced stage of exploitation of Algerian oil fields is mirrored by Algeria’s Reserve-to-Production (R/P) ratio of 21.7—as opposed to a world average of 50.2 and a Middle East average of 71.0.
- 8.
Enhanced Oil Recovery, a technique used to extract higher quantities of oil from (typically mature) oil fields and involving thermal, chemical or gas injection.
- 9.
The Sahara Blend is a light crude oil with low sulfur content.
- 10.
In 2007 Algerian oil exports to the US peaked at 443,000 b/d (EIA).
- 11.
The largest countries of Europe also feature as the main importers of Algerian crude, implying that Algerian market share is fairly balanced overall across Europe. Besides, intra-European destinations of Algerian oil tend to change quite remarkably from one year to another. In 2016, the main importers were France, Germany, Spain, Italy, The Netherlands and the UK. The majority of EU exports of Algerian Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs) are, on the other hand, structurally directed to The Netherlands.
- 12.
Other countries, such as Portugal and Slovenia, also consume Algerian gas, but in significantly smaller amounts.
- 13.
Albeit some LNG comes from Algeria, which also owns regasification capacity in Spain.
- 14.
It is relevant to distinguish between different categories of solar electricity generating technology, i.e. between Solar Photovoltaics (Solar PV) and CSP. Until about a decade ago, CSP received a lot of attention for its potential to by applied at a large scale (utility scale), while solar PV was particularly popular for smaller-scale (rooftop) applications. In the past ten years, economies of scale in the PV industry have impacted such prospects. Due to noteworthy cost decline in PV modules, utility-scale (ground mounted) PV plants became significantly more attractive. PV projects started to outcompete CSP on a levelised cost basis, and worldwide PV growth outpaced CSP growth (see Graph 7.2). This is not to say that the prospects of CSP have diminished indefinitely. With respect to electricity generation, it is important to recognise both the cost and value sides. CSP often includes integrated energy storage, and consequently delivers electricity in the night following the day, after the sun has set. This benefits consumers, and it can increase the utilisation rate of energy conversion technologies such as electrolysers. Even at a higher relative cost, a CSP project’s value proposition could therefore be relatively attractive, compared to a lower cost solar PV project without such storage, depending on the exact context. In any case, when assessing merits of options, it is important to make a fair comparison, taking costs as well as value into consideration.
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Franza, L., van der Linde, C., Stapersma, P. (2020). European Energy Security and the Resilience of Southern Mediterranean Countries. In: Cusumano, E., Hofmaier, S. (eds) Projecting Resilience Across the Mediterranean. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23641-0_7
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