Keywords

FormalPara Vernaculars:

Urd. : Khulanjan ; Hin. : Bara khulanjan , Khulanjan , Sapheda-pana-ki-jhad ; San. : Dharnula tikshra mula , Dhumpa-rastma , Kulanjana , Mahabhara vacha , Sugandhavacha ; Ben.: Barakulanjar , Bomb , Kulanjan , Sugandhavacha ; Mal.: Arattha , Chitta-ratta , Kol-inji , Pera-ratta ; Mar.: Kosht-kolanjan , Malabari-kolanjan , Motha-kolanjan ; Tam.: Perarattai , Peria-reta ; Tel.: Pedda-dhumpa , Pedda-dumparash-trakan , Rash-trakam ; Ara.: Khulanjan-e-kabir , Khulanjan-e-qasbi ; Chi.: Da guo liang jiang , Hung-dau-kau ; Cze.: Galgán obecný , Galgán veliký , Galgán větší ; Dan.: Stor galanga ; Dut.: Galigaan , Grote galanga , Lengoewas ; Eng.: Galanga major , Great galangal , Java galangal ; Fre.: Galanga , Galanga d’Inde , Souchet long , Souchet odorant ; Ger.: Galanga , Galgant , Galgantalpinie , Großer galgant , Siam-ingwer ; Ind.; Laos ; Ita.: Galanga maggiore ; Maly.: Lawas and Langkuweh (Sumatra), Lengkuas (Indonesia); Per.: Khurduwara , Khusravedurue-kalan ; Por.: Gengibre do Laos , Gengibre tailandés ; Rus. : Al’piniia galanga ; Spa.: Calanga , Garengal ; Tag.: Langkauás , Lannkauás ; Tha.: Dok kha , Ginza , Khaa ; Vie.: Cao khương hương , Một loại gừng , Riềng ấm , Riềng nếp , Sơn nại.

FormalPara Description:

The herb is native to Indonesia, India (Bengal, south India), Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam, Java, and Sumatra. It is known in China by the same names as the lesser Galangal , and also Greeks, Arabs and Persian do not distinguish it from the latter. The distinction between the two was made by Garcia D’Orta in 1563, who described the smaller-sized, brought from China to India, with more potent virtues than the thicker less aromatic rhizome produced in Java. Hindus regard the plant as a native of Malabar (lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea) of western India.XL It is a ginger -like perennial, leafy-stemmed herb, 0.7–1.2 m tall. Rhizomes creeping 12–18 mm in diameter, reddish-brown, glabrous, covered with fibrous scales which leave irregular rings; leaves cartilagenous, glabrous, lanceolate, 29–40 cm long and 24 mm wide, sheath scariose. The rhizomes as available in Indian market appear as long transverse pieces 11.5 cm long by 2 cm in diameter, ramificate, dark reddish or cinnamon-brown externally with yellowish-white interior, fibrous, surface annulate with yellowish, wavy leaf bases. The odor is aromatic and the taste is aromatic and pungent (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).XL

Fig. 1
figure 1

Alpinia galanga, Plant, Raffi Kojian, Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, Thailand. WikimediaCommons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gardenology.org-IMG_7562_qsbg11mar.jpg

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Fig. 2
figure 2

Alpinia galanga, Illustration, Kurt Stüber, WikimediaCommons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maranta_galanga_Ypey51.jpg

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Fig. 3
figure 3

Alpinia galanga, Roots, McLeod, WikimediaCommons; ShareAlike 3.0 Unported CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpinia_galanga.jpg; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

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FormalPara Actions and Uses:

The rhizomes (temperament, hot 2° and dry 2°) are aromatic, refrigerant and mouth freshener,LXXVII,LXXXI detergent, stomachic and carminative, used in dyspepsia and gastralgia,XXI,LXXVII,LXXXI,CV as a fragrant adjunct to cough and digestive mixtures,XXI useful in rheumatism and catarrhal affections,XXI,LXXVII and are considered cardiac, liver and gastric tonic, useful in diabetes insipidus, and as aphrodisiac.LXXVII Application on the face of a paste made by rubbing the rhizome with oil or water is claimed to remove freckles.LXXXI Other uses reported are for the treatment of bronchitis, heart diseases, chronic enteritis, renal calculus, diabetes, rheumatism and kidney disorders [17]. Its slight irritant action on the gastric mucosa may produce a reflex increase in bronchial secretions, and due to the excretion of the oil through lungs it acts as an expectorant, and thus its use in various pulmonary ailments.XXI,CV Use of A. galanga in honey lessened the paroxysm of whooping cough in children, relieved the distressing symptoms in young children suffering from bronchitis, and also had a favorable effect on body temperature of the patients. The antispasmodic action could also be beneficial in conditions like asthma.XXI It is reported to be good for impotence, and also stimulates respiration.LXXXVIII In the Philippines, the juice of the rhizomes is applied to anan or paño blanco, a kind of skin disease.CXVII

FormalPara Phytoconstituents:

Rhizomes contain tannins, coumarins, flavonoids, sterols, and glycosides [13]. Three hydroxy-1,8-cineole glucopyranosides [42], three neolignans, galanganal, galanganols A and B, and a sesquineolignan, galanganol [27], and three novel chalcones, galanganones A-C [49], have been isolated from the rhizomes. The rhizomes also contain the oil, acrid resin, galangol, 0.5–5% EO, a sesquiterpene and dioxyflavonol. Rhizome EO contains 1,8-cineole (28.4%), α-fenchyl acetate (18.4%), camphor (7.7%), (E)-methyl cinnamate (4.2%) and guaiol (3.3%), whereas the root EO contains α-fenchyl acetate (40.9%), 1,8-cineole (9.4%), borneol (6.3%), bornyl acetate (5.4%), and elemol (3.1%) [16]. Leaf and flower EOs mainly contain 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, (E)-methyl cinnamate, terpinen-4-ol, camphor , and α- and β-pinenes [29]. Actions of galangol and the EO are that of an aromatic stimulant, with effect similar to those of ginger . The pungent principal in galangal rhizomes is identified as 1′-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA, galangal acetate), which is not stable in aqueous solutions, is less pungent than capsaicin and can be used as an alcohol enhancer, or an alcohol replacer in alcohol and alcohol-free beverages [50]. However, dihydrogalangal acetate, present in quantity approximately 0.0005% of fresh roots and in about 0.004% of dried roots, has a taste sensation similar to galangal acetate, is more stable in food and beverage applications, and provides advantages as a flavor ingredient for alcohol enhancement and taste modification [51]. Following flavonoids, (2R, 3S)-pinobaksin-3-cinnamate, (2R, 3R)-pinobaksin-3-cinnamate, pinocembrin, pinobaksin, 3-O-acetylpinobaksin, galangin-3-methyl-ether, kumatakenin, galangin, 3-methylkaempferol and (2R, 3R)-3, 5-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-flavanone, were reported from ethanol extract of seeds [5]. Pharmacognostical characteristics for the identification of the rhizome have been described [6, 48].

FormalPara Pharmacology:

Powdered rhizomes, aqueous and methanol extracts significantly lowered blood glucose of normal rabbits, but did not affect glucose level in alloxan-diabetic rabbits [2]; however, methanol extract of defatted aerial parts normalized serum glucose in STZ-diabetic rats after three-weeks treatment, and significantly lowered TC, LDL-C, and TGs, and increased HDL-C [46]. Ethanol extract also significantly lowered serum TC, LDL-C, and TGs, and increased HDL-C of Triton-induced hyperlipidemic rats [13], and STZ-diabetic rats [18]. Methanol and ethyl acetate extracts caused CNS stimulation in mice [36]. Ethanol extract also showed significant analgesic effects, probably through both central and peripheral actions [1], and preteatment with ethanol extract improved cognitive function of oxidative stress-induced Alzheimer’s type amnesia in mice, and attenuated the elevated levels of AChE and MAO enzymes [10]; 1′δ-1′-acetoxyeugenol acetate was identified as the neuroprotective agent [9]. Ethanol extract decreased cell viability, induced apoptosis in cultured human breast carcinoma (MCF-7) cells [37], while ACA exhibited potent antioxidant activity and potentiated cell apoptosis and decreased cytokine production by T helper cells. Hydroxychavicol acetate has neither antioxidant activity, nor proapoptotic function, but increased IL-2 production and attenuated IFNγ expression in T helper cells [26]. ACA protected against OVA -induced asthma in mice [41]. Methanol extract is a significant inhibitor of PAF [15], and the aqueous extract and ACA have significant cytotoxic effect against several human normal and cancer cell lines [22, 28]. Methanol rhizome extract administration to male rats daily for eight-weeks significantly increased serum testosterone, sperm count, sperm viability and motility [25], whereas ethanol extract daily for 90-days significantly increased RBC counts, sex organs weight, sperm count and motility in male mice [32].

Methanol extract showed significant antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, E. aerogene, E. cloacae, E. faecalis, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium, S. aureus and S. epidermis [35], and also strongly inhibited HIV-1 protease, and to a lesser degree hepatitis C virus and HCV proteases [43]. Chloroform extract showed antiamebic activity against E. histolytica, and G. intestinalis [38, 39], antifungal activity against opportunistic fungal pathogens associated with AIDS patients, such as C. neoformans, and M. gypseum [30], and the ethanol extract against T. longifusus [20], and other human pathogenic fungi strains, including those resistant to antifungals, ketoconazole and amphotericin B [7]. The colorless oil from rhizome showed activity against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, S. bovis, and C. albicans [45]. ACA inhibits HIV-1 replication and acts synergistically with didanosine to inhibit HIV-1 replication [52], is a potent inhibitor of influenza virus replication [47], and inhibitor of IFN-β production in LPS-activated mouse peritoneal macrophages [4, 23], and also shows gastric cytoprotective effect against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats [24]. An antimicrobial diterpene synergistically enhanced antifungal activity of quercetin and chalcone against C. albicans [11]. The rhizome EO shows strong and rapid bactericidal activity against a number of Gram-negative and Gram-positive food-borne bacteria [31], yeast and a number of dermatophytes, and ACA was identified as the active constituent [14, 40]. Crude acetone extract exhibits activity against S. typhi and E. coli, with an efficiency of 92% and 82% respectively; principal compound responsible for the activity, ACA, showed the ability to prevent plasmid encoded antibiotic resistance in various MDR bacterial strains of clinical isolates, such as E. faecalis, S. typhi, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli with efficiency of 66%, 75%, 70%, and 32%, respectively [21]. Alcohol extract of the rhizomes also showed good in vitro anthelmintic activity against human A. lumbricoides [33, 34].

FormalPara Clinical Studies:

In a double-blind, multicenter, parallel-group, 6-weeks RCT of 261 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee, patients who received a highly purified and standardized extract of Zingiber officinale and A. galanga had significant reduction in symptoms of osteoarthritis, such as reduction in knee pain on standing, reduction in knee pain after walking 50 feet, and reduction in the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities osteoarthritis composite index [3].

FormalPara Mechanism of Action:

Ethanol extract in vitro inhibits AChE , BChE and LOX enzymes [19], LPS, cytokine, and amyloid Aβ peptide-induced expression of the proinflammatory genes TNF-α, IL-1β, and COX-2 [8]. Inhibition of expression of Th2 cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13, and Th1 cytokines, IL-12α and IFN-γ by ACA may be responsible for its antiasthmatic effect in OVA -induced asthma in mice [41].

FormalPara Human A/Es, Allergy and Toxicity:

In human, the drug causes a decrease in urine formation (oliguria).LXXVII A case of localized contact dermatitis leading to generalized erythema multiforme-like eruptions after topical application of a herbal remedy containing A. galanga was reported [12].

FormalPara Animal Toxicity:

Ethanol rhizomes extract, with doses up to 3,000 mg/kg body weight, was nontoxic and nonlethal to mice, during acute (24 h) toxicity studies [32]; methanol extract of defatted aerial parts was also nontoxic to mice up to an oral dose of 1,600 mg/kg [46].

FormalPara CYP450 and Potential for Drug-Herb Interaction:

Methanol extract is reported to cause more than 30% inhibition of CYP2D6 [44].

FormalPara Commentary:

There are no clinical studies reported on the rhizome or its oil by itself in the mainstream English publications listed on PubMed, except one in combination with Zingiber officinale on osteoarthritis.