Abstract
The UK Government has remained silent regarding the envisaged system of international protection for refugees in the UK after the UK leaves the European Union (EU). In this context, this chapter contributes to knowledge by examining the likely impact of Brexit on refugee recognition in the UK from a gender perspective. A gender lens is applied to a historical analysis of the impact of the Qualification Directive 2004, part of the Common European Asylum System (CEAS), on asylum practice in the UK. It is suggested that historic practice and existing international and regional refugee and human rights obligations means leaving the EU is unlikely to immediately and significantly impact decision-making in gender-related asylum claims. However, this chapter highlights the risks associated with the loss of a legal framework underpinned by fundamental rights and effective remedies.
This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and the Northern Bridge Doctoral Training Partnership.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2017–19 (HL Bill 79) (18 January 2018), https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/bills/lbill/2017-2019/0079/18079.pdf, accessed 2 February 2018. At the time of writing, the Bill is being debated in Parliament.
- 2.
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137; Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 31 January 1967, entered into force 4 October 1967) 606 UNTS 267.
- 3.
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (consolidated version) [2012] OJ C326/47.
- 4.
Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted [2004] OJ L304/12.
- 5.
Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status [2005] OJ L326/13.
- 6.
Council Directive 2003/9/EC of 27 January 2003 laying down minimum standards for the reception of asylum seekers [2003] OJ L31/18.
- 7.
Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national [2003] OJ L50/1.
- 8.
Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted [2011] OJ L337/9.
- 9.
Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection [2013] OJ L180/60.
- 10.
Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection [2013] OJ L180/96.
- 11.
Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person (recast) [2013] OJ L180/31.
- 12.
The Refugee or Person in Need of International Protection (Qualification) Regulations 2006.
- 13.
Convention on Preventing and Combatting Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (adopted 11 May 2011, entered into force 1 August 2014) CETS 210.
- 14.
Council of the European Union. Joint Position of 4 March 1996 defined by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union on the harmonized application of the definition of the term ‘refugee’ in Article 1 of the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951 relating to the status of refugees (96/196/JHA) [1996] OJ L63/2.
- 15.
Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte Adan, R v. [1999] 1 AC 293 (2 April 1998); see also Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex Parte Adan R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex Parte Aitseguer, R v. [2001] 2 AC 477 (19 December 2000).
- 16.
STARRED FD (Protection, UNMIK, Arif, IFA, Art1D) (Kosovo) CG [2000] UKIAT 00001, para. 2, 12, 14.
- 17.
SF (Sufficiency of Protection-KAA-Michigan Guidelines) Iraq CG [2002] UKIAT 07376, para. 13.
- 18.
DM (Majority Clan Entities Can Protect) Somalia [2005] UKAIT 00150, para. 22.
- 19.
Karanakaran v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2000] 3 All ER 449 (25 January 2000).
- 20.
Robinson, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department & Anor [1998] QB 929 (11 July 1997), para. 29.
- 21.
Robinson, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department & Anor [1998] QB 929 (11 July 1997), para. 18.
- 22.
Acevedo 18334, cited in Symes and Jorro (2003, 224).
- 23.
Loi n° 2003-1176 du 10 décembre 2003 modifiant la loi n° 52-893 du 25 juillet 1952 relative au droit d’asile, NOR: MAEX0300032L.
- 24.
Secretary of State for the Home Department v. K, Fornah v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2007] 1 AC 412 (18 October 2006).
- 25.
SB (PSG—Protection Regulations—Reg 6) Moldova CG [2008] UKAIT 00002, para. 69.
- 26.
Judgment of 7 November 2013, X, Y and Z v Minister voor Immigratie, Integratie en Asiel, Joined Cases C-199/12 to 201/12, ECLI:EU:C:2013:720.
- 27.
Judgment of 2 December 2014, A v Staatssecretaris van Veiligheid en Justitie, Joined Cases C-148/13 to C-150/13, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2406.
- 28.
Judgment of 25 January 2018, F (area of freedom, security and justice—Judgment), C-473/16, ECLI:EU:C:2018:36.
- 29.
European Council (15–16 October 1999). Tampere Presidency Conclusions, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm, accessed 2 February 2018, para. 13.
- 30.
MI & Anor v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2014] EWCA Civ 826, para. 46.
- 31.
HD (Trafficked women) Nigeria (CG) [2016] UKUT 454 (IAC), para. 21–22.
- 32.
Secretary of State for the Home Department v. K, Fornah v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2007] 1 AC 412 (18 October 2006).
- 33.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted on 22 May 1969, entered into force on 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331.
- 34.
Horvath v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] 1 AC 489 (6 July 2000).
- 35.
Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (Ratification of Convention) Act 2017.
- 36.
See for example Committee on the Rights of the Child, I.A.M. v. Denmark, CRC/C/77/D/3/2016 (25 January 2018); Human Rights Committee, F. and G. v. Denmark, CCPR/C/119/D/2530/2015 (28 June 2017).
Bibliography
Anker, D. 2001. Refugee Status and Violence Against Women in the Domestic Sphere: The Non-state Actor Question. Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 15: 391–402.
Bennett, C. 2008. Relocation, Relocation: The Impact of Internal Relocation on Women Asylum Seekers. Report. Asylum Aid. https://www.asylumaid.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Relocation_Relocation_research_report.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Ceneda, S., and C. Palmer. 2006. ‘Lip Service’ or Implementation? The Home Office Gender Guidance and Women’s Asylum Claims in the UK. Report. Asylum Aid. https://www.asylumaid.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Lip_Service_or_Implementation.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Charlesworth, H., C. Chinkin, and S. Wright. 1991. Feminist Approaches to International Law. American Journal of International Law 85 (4): 613–645.
Cheikh Ali, H., C. Querton, and E. Soulard. 2012. Gender Related Asylum Claims in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Law, Policies and Practice Focusing on Women in Nine EU Member States. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2012/462481/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2012)462481_EN.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Coppel QC, J. 2018. Equality and Human Rights Commission. Opinion: European Union (Withdrawal) Bill—E.U. Charter of Fundamental Rights. https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/eu-withdrawal-bill-legal-advice-jason-coppel-qc.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Council of the European Union. 2017a. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Standards for the Qualification of Third-Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Beneficiaries of International Protection, for a Uniform Status for Refugees or for Persons Eligible for Subsidiary Protection and for the Content of the Protection Granted and Amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 Concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals Who Are Long-Term Residents (7827/17). http://www.statewatch.org/news/2017/apr/eu-council-qualifications-7827-17.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Council of the European Union. 2017b. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Standards for the Qualification of Third-Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Beneficiaries of International Protection, for a Uniform Status for Refugees or for Persons Eligible for Subsidiary Protection and for the Content of the Protection Granted and Amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 Concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals Who Are Long-Term Residents—Mandate for Negotiations with the European Parliament (10475/17). http://www.statewatch.org/news/2017/jul/eu-council-qualifications-mandate-to-negotiate-10475-17.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Department for Exiting the European Union. 2017. The United Kingdom’s Exit from and New Partnership with the European Union White Paper, Cm9417. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/589189/The_United_Kingdoms_exit_from_and_partnership_with_the_EU_Print.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Department for Exiting the European Union. 2018. European Union (Withdrawal) Bill: Explanatory Notes. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/bills/cbill/2017-2019/0005/en/18005en.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Doward, J. 2017. Britain Faces Rebuke Over Refusal to Back More Than 100 UN Human Rights Targets. The Observer, September 16. https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/sep/16/britain-un-human-rights-brexit. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Commission. 2001. Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection (COM(2001) 510 Final).
European Commission. 2015. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A European Agenda on Migration (COM(2015) 240 Final, 13 May 2015). https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/communication_on_the_european_agenda_on_migration_en.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Commission. 2016a. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Standards for the Qualification of Third-Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Beneficiaries of International Protection, for a Uniform Status for Refugees or for Persons Eligible for Subsidiary Protection and for the Content of the Protection Granted and Amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 Concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals Who Are Long-Term Residents (COM(2016) 466 Final).
European Commission. 2016b. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing the Criteria and Mechanisms for Determining the Member Stare Responsible for Examining an Application for International Protection Lodged in One of the Member States by a Third-Country National or a Stateless Person (Recast) (COM(2016) 0270 Final).
European Council. 1999. Tampere Presidency Conclusions, October 15–16. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Council for Refugees and Exiles (‘ECRE’). 2000. Non-state Agents of Persecution and the Inability of the State to Protect. http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b3430.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Council for Refugees and Exiles (‘ECRE’). 2008. The Impact of the EU Qualification Directive on International Protection. https://www.ecre.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ECRE-The-Impact-of-the-EU-Qualification-Directive-on-International-Protection_October-2008.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Council for Refugees and Exiles (‘ECRE’). 2014. Actors of Protection and the Application of the Internal Protection Alternative: National Report—France. http://www.refworld.org/publisher,ECRE,,,543bbdb60,0.html. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
European Parliament—Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. 2017a. Report on the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Standards for the Qualification of Third-Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Beneficiaries of International Protection, for a Uniform Status for Refugees or for Persons Eligible for Subsidiary Protection and for the Content of the Protection Granted and Amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 Concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals Who Are Long-Term Residents (COM(2016) 466 final).
European Parliament—Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. 2017b. The Implications of the United Kingdom’s Withdrawal from the European Union for the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/596824/IPOL_STU(2017)596824_EN.pdf. Accessed 2 Jan 2018.
European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2017–19 (HL Bill 79). 2018, January 18. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/bills/lbill/2017-2019/0079/18079.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Eurostat. 2017. Asylum and First Time Asylum Applicants by Citizenship, Age and Sex Annual Aggregated Data (Rounded), last updated 4 October 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/asylum-and-managed-migration/data/database. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Farrior, S. 2009. Human Rights Advocacy on Gender Issues: Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Human Rights Practice 1 (1): 83–100.
Foster, M. 2014. Why We Are Not There Yet: The Particular Challenge of ‘Particular Social Group’. In Gender in Refugee Law: From the Margins to the Centre, ed. E. Arbel, C. Dauvergne, and J. Millbank, 17–45. London: Routledge.
Garlick, M. 2015. International Protection in Court: The Asylum Jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the EU and UNHCR. Refugee Survey Quarterly 34 (1): 107–130.
Gil-Bazo, M.-T. 2008. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and the Right to Be Granted Asylum in the Union’s Law. Refugee Survey Quarterly 27 (3): 33–52.
Gil-Bazo, M.-T. 2015. Refugee Protection Under International Human Rights Law: From Non-refoulement to Residence and Citizenship. Refugee Survey Quarterly 34 (1): 11–42.
Guerrina, R., and A. Masselot. 2018. Walking into the Footprint of EU Law: Unpacking the Gendered Consequences of Brexit. Social Policy and Society 17 (2): 1–12.
Harvey, C. 2000. Seeking Asylum in the UK: Problems and Prospects. London: Butterworths.
Hathaway, J., and M. Foster. 2014. The Law of Refugee Status, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hathaway, J., and H. Storey. 2016. What Is the Meaning of State Protection in Refugee Law? A Debate. International Journal of Refugee Law 28 (3): 480–492.
Home Office. 2006. Explanatory Memorandum to the Refugee or Person in Need of International Protection (Qualification) Regulations 2006 No. 2525. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/2525/pdfs/uksiem_20062525_en.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Home Office. 2017. Ratification of the Council of Europe Convention on Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention)—Report on Progress. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/656565/CCS207_CCS1017309396-1_HO_Istanbul_Convention_report__PRINT_READY.PDF. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee. 2017a. EU Asylum Reform, January 11. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmeuleg/71-xxiii/7113.htm#_idTextAnchor015. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee. 2017b. EU Asylum Reform: Revision of the Dublin Rules and the Establishment of an EU Agency for Asylum, April 19. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmeuleg/71-xxxvi/7105.htm. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee. 2017c. EU Asylum Reform, November 29. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmeuleg/301-iii/30119.htm. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
House of Lords European Union Committee. 2009. Asylum Directives: Scrutiny of the Opt-In Decisions, Appendix 4: Qualification Directive—Explanatory Memorandum. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200910/ldselect/ldeucom/6/607.htm. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
House of Lords Select Committee on the European Union. 2002. Defining Refugee Status and Those in Need of International Protection. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200102/ldselect/ldeucom/156/156.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Ippolito, F. 2015. Migration and Asylum Cases Before the Court of Justice of the European Union: Putting the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights to Test? European Journal of Migration and Law 17 (1): 1–38.
Jenkins, I. 2017. Is Brexit Bad for Women? The Financial Times, July 7. https://www.ft.com/content/a1ec120c-6307-11e7-91a7-502f7ee26895. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Kilkey, M. 2017. Conditioning Family-Life at the Intersection of Migration and Welfare: The Implications for ‘Brexit Families’. Journal of Social Policy 46 (4): 797–814.
Lambert, H. 2006. The EU Asylum Qualification Directive, Its Impact on the Jurisprudence of the United Kingdom and International Law. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 55: 161–192.
Mariño Menéndez, F.M. 2015. Recent Jurisprudence of the United Nations Committee Against Torture and the International Protection of Refugees. Refugee Survey Quarterly 34 (1): 61–78.
Muggeridge, H., and C. Maman. 2011. Unsustainable: The Quality of Initial Decision-Making in Women’s Asylum Claims. Report. Asylum Aid. https://www.asylumaid.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/unsustainableweb.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Mullally, S. 2011. Domestic Violence Asylum Claims and Recent Developments in International Human Rights Law: A Progress Narrative? International and Comparative Law Quarterly 60 (2): 459–484.
Phuong, C. 2002. Persecution by Non-state Agents: Comparative Judicial Interpretations of the 1951 Refugee Convention. European Journal of Migration and Law 4 (4): 521–532.
Querton, C. 2012a. The Interpretation of the Convention Ground of ‘Membership of a Particular Social Group’ in the Context of Gender-Related Claims for Asylum: A Critical Analysis of the Tribunal’s Approach in the UK. Refugee Law Initiative Working Paper No. 3. http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4690/5/RLI_Working_Paper_No.3.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Querton, C. 2012b. ‘I Feel Like as a Woman, I’m Not Welcome’: A Gender Analysis of UK Asylum Law, Policy and Practice. Report. Asylum Aid. https://www.asylumaid.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ifeelasawoman_report_web_.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Querton, C. 2017. The Role of the European Court of Human Rights in the Protection of Women Fleeing Gender-Based Violence in Their Home Countries. Feminists @ Law 7: Multimedia.
Shutes, I., and S. Walker. 2018. Gender and Free Movement: EU Migrant Women’s Access to Residence and Social Rights in the UK. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44 (1): 137–153.
Stevens, D. 2004. UK Asylum Law and Policy: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. London: Sweet & Maxwell.
Storey, H. 1998. The “Internal Flight Alternative” (IFA) Test and the Concept of Protection. In Current Issues of UK Asylum Law and Policy, ed. F. Nicholson and P. Twomey, 100–132. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Storey, H. 2008. EU Refugee Qualification Directive: A Brave New World? International Journal of Refugee Law 20 (1): 1–49.
Symes, M., and P. Jorro. 2003. Asylum Law and Practice. London: Reed Elsevier (UK) Ltd.
Takahashi, S. 2002. Recourse to Human Rights Treaty Bodies for Monitoring of the Refugee Convention. Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 20 (1): 53–74.
The Conservative and Unionist Party. 2017. Manifesto: Forward, Together: Our Plan for a Stronger Britain and a Prosperous Future. https://www.conservatives.com/manifesto. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
The Guardian. 2017. The Draft Home Office Post-Brexit Immigration Policy Document in Full. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/sep/05/the-draft-home-office-post-brexit-immigration-policy-document-in-full. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
United Kingdom Border Agency (‘UKBA’). 2010. Asylum Policy Instruction on Gender Issues in the Asylum Claim. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/257386/gender-issue-in-the-asylum.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’). 1979, Re-issued 2011. Handbook and Guidelines on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status Under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’). 2002a. Guidelines on International Protection No. 1: Gender-Related Persecution within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or Its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (HCR/GIP/02/01).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’). 2002b. Guidelines on International Protection No. 2: “Membership of a Particular Social Group” Within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or Its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (HCR/GIP/02/02).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’). 2003. Guidelines on International Protection “Internal Flight or Relocation Alternative” Within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’). 2005. Annotated Comments on the EC Council Directive 2004/83/EC on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons who otherwise need International Protection and the Content of the Protection granted (OJ L 304/12 of 30.9.2004).
Wallace, R. 2013. Internal Relocation Alternative in Refugee Status Determination: Is the Risk/Protection Dichotomy Reality or Myth? A Gendered Analysis. In Contemporary Issues in Refugee Law, ed. S.S. Juss and C. Harvey, 289–310. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Wilsher, D. 2003. Non-state Actors and the Definition of a Refugee in the United Kingdom: Protection, Accountability or Culpability? International Journal of Refugee Law 15 (1): 68–112.
Yeo, C. 2017. The Impact of Brexit on UK Asylum Law. Refugee Law Initiative’s 8th International Refugee Law Seminar Series. https://soundcloud.com/refugeelawinitiative/the-impact-of-brexit-on-uk-asylum-law. Accessed 2 Feb 2018.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Querton, C. (2019). The Impact of Brexit on Gender and Asylum Law in the UK. In: Dustin, M., Ferreira, N., Millns, S. (eds) Gender and Queer Perspectives on Brexit. Gender and Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03122-0_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03122-0_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03121-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03122-0
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)