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The Rehabilitation of Contaminated Land to Enhance Future Options for Cities

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International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy 2018

Part of the book series: International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy ((IYSLP,volume 2018))

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Abstract

The rehabilitation of contaminated land is a potentially attractive solution for cities that are under growing pressure to find new sources of land for housing and new sources of socio-economic revitalisation. Although it is sometimes a complex, expensive and lengthy process, remediating contaminated sites can make a positive contribution to the sustainability of a city. It does so by ensuring that land is not left unproductive and potentially harmful to people or the environment and instead is given a new purpose that is tailored to the needs of surrounding communities. Two cities discussed in this chapter—Hong Kong and Glasgow—demonstrate some of the potential benefits of rehabilitating urban contaminated land, as well as the problems commonly encountered. Case studies for these two cities highlight the need for rehabilitation to be carefully planned and managed so that the needs of residents and other site users are met in a timely manner. There is a growing recognition by city planners in both Scotland and Hong Kong that the reuse of contaminated land has a role to play in their future urban vision.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Duncan and Popp (2017).

  2. 2.

    Tang and Nathanail (2012), p. 841; Nathanail (2014).

  3. 3.

    Brandon (2013), p. 330.

  4. 4.

    For these reasons, using the term ‘site contamination’ may be preferable: Brandon (2013), pp. 4–5.

  5. 5.

    However, use of these terms is inconsistent, and occasionally they are used very broadly to refer to the entire contaminated land management process.

  6. 6.

    Brandon (2013), pp. 12–13.

  7. 7.

    Brandon (2013), pp. 15–16.

  8. 8.

    Panagos et al. (2013).

  9. 9.

    United States Government Accountability Office (2015).

  10. 10.

    E.g. the Toxic Sites Identification Program: Ericson (2011), p. 19.

  11. 11.

    CRC CARE (2009).

  12. 12.

    The EU spends at least 6 billion Euros annually on managing contaminated sites.

  13. 13.

    According to the European Environment Agency (2015), on average, about 80% of each (European) country’s total annual costs of managing contaminated land is spent on remediation (including post-remediation measures), and 15% on site investigations.

  14. 14.

    Preston (2008), p. 167.

  15. 15.

    Brandon (2013), p. 21.

  16. 16.

    Longo and Campbell (2016), p. 1.

  17. 17.

    E.g. Turvani and Tonin (2008); European Commission (2013).

  18. 18.

    Wong and Schulze Bäing (2010), p. 21.

  19. 19.

    Nathanail (2014).

  20. 20.

    Longo and Campbell (2016), p. 2.

  21. 21.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), p. 16.

  22. 22.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), p. 17.

  23. 23.

    BBC News (2014).

  24. 24.

    This consists of Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act (1990) and the Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations, together with the Scottish Government’s Statutory Guidance on Contaminated Land (2006).

  25. 25.

    Scottish Government (2006).

  26. 26.

    S78C(8), Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act (1990) and Regs 2 and 3, Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations.

  27. 27.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 36. In 2015–2016, the Council received site investigations for 45 sites through the planning system, covering approx. 80 ha of potentially contaminated land in total.

  28. 28.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 36.

  29. 29.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), p. 21.

  30. 30.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), pp. 20–21.

  31. 31.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), pp. 22–23.

  32. 32.

    Glasgow City Council (2018b).

  33. 33.

    Glasgow City Council (2018b).

  34. 34.

    Glasgow City Council (2018a).

  35. 35.

    Glasgow City Council (2017b).

  36. 36.

    Glasgow City Council (2016). These areas are both currently undergoing redevelopment.

  37. 37.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 35.

  38. 38.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 35.

  39. 39.

    Glasgow City Council (2018a).

  40. 40.

    E.g. Lawson and Kearns (2017), p. 80.

  41. 41.

    Lawson and Kearns (2017), p. 80.

  42. 42.

    The URC is a partnership between Glasgow City Council, South Lanarkshire Council, Scottish Enterprise and the Scottish Government.

  43. 43.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2018).

  44. 44.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 7.

  45. 45.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017b).

  46. 46.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017b).

  47. 47.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 36.

  48. 48.

    The chemicals factory closed in 1967: Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 10.

  49. 49.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 10.

  50. 50.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 10.

  51. 51.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 18.

  52. 52.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 18.

  53. 53.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 19.

  54. 54.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 3.

  55. 55.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 13.

  56. 56.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 21.

  57. 57.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 21.

  58. 58.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), pp. 27–29.

  59. 59.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), pp. 27–29.

  60. 60.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 29.

  61. 61.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 3.

  62. 62.

    Clyde Gateway Urban Regeneration Company (2017a), p. 3.

  63. 63.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), paras 2.1, 2.4. The total area has been gradually decreasing since 2010, with a net reduction of 3% in 2015–2016.

  64. 64.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), para 1.2. The Scottish Vacant and Derelict Land Survey has been undertaken annually since 1988. Approximately 69% of all vacant land in Glasgow has been on the survey for at least 15 years (para 2.4).

  65. 65.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), para 2.3.

  66. 66.

    Leslie (2015).

  67. 67.

    Leslie (2015).

  68. 68.

    Varna (2014).

  69. 69.

    Varna (2014).

  70. 70.

    Varna (2014).

  71. 71.

    Varna (2014).

  72. 72.

    Russolo (2015).

  73. 73.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), para 1.3.

  74. 74.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), para 1.3.

  75. 75.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), para 2.4.

  76. 76.

    Glasgow City Council (2017c), paras 3.1–3.5.

  77. 77.

    Nathanail (2014).

  78. 78.

    Nathanail (2014).

  79. 79.

    Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (2018), p. 34.

  80. 80.

    Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (2018), p. 34.

  81. 81.

    Hong Kong Government (2015), p. 1.

  82. 82.

    E.g. the site developed for the Disneyland theme park on Lantau Island, which was heavily contaminated and required costly remediation at considerable expense to the government.

  83. 83.

    E.g., the iron ore mine in Ma On Shan, which caused considerable contamination of the soil and groundwater, as well as Tolo Harbour, during its operation from 1906 to the 1970s: Wong (1981).

  84. 84.

    Hong Kong Government (2017a).

  85. 85.

    Toxics Link (2014); South China Morning Post (2016).

  86. 86.

    Hong Kong Government (2017b). However, this figure may be conservative, according to the urban planning research group, Liber Research Community. It identified 1172 ha of brownfields in the New Territories alone: Hong Kong Free Press (2017).

  87. 87.

    Hong Kong Government (2017b).

  88. 88.

    Hong Kong Free Press (2017).

  89. 89.

    Hong Kong Free Press (2017). Liber Research Community estimates that 84,000 ‘rural-type’ public housing projects could be built on this land.

  90. 90.

    There are three key guidance documents: ‘Guidance Note for Contaminated Land Assessment and Remediation’, ‘Guidance Manual for Use of Risk-Based Remediation Goals for Contaminated Land Management’ and ‘Practice Guide for Investigation and Remediation of Contaminated Land’, Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong Government.

  91. 91.

    Hong Kong Government (2008), para 7.

  92. 92.

    Hong Kong Government (2008), para 12.

  93. 93.

    Chan (2003), p. 266. The theme park was estimated to generate a net economic benefit of HK$ 148 billion over 40 years: Hong Kong Government (1999).

  94. 94.

    Chan (2003), p. 273.

  95. 95.

    Chan (2003), p. 268.

  96. 96.

    Chan (2003), p. 269.

  97. 97.

    South China Morning Post (2017a).

  98. 98.

    South China Morning Post (2018a).

  99. 99.

    South China Morning Post (2018b).

  100. 100.

    South China Morning Post (2017d).

  101. 101.

    South China Morning Post (2017b).

  102. 102.

    Hong Kong Government (2018).

  103. 103.

    Hong Kong Government (2018).

  104. 104.

    Hong Kong Government (2006b), para 10.7.

  105. 105.

    Hong Kong Government (2006b), para 10.6.8.

  106. 106.

    Hong Kong Government (2006b), para 10.7.15.

  107. 107.

    Hong Kong Government (2006a), p. 6.

  108. 108.

    Hong Kong Government (2006a), p. 11. A combination of soil excavation, bio-piling and solidification/stabilisation measures were used to treat the contaminated soil.

  109. 109.

    Hong Kong Government (2006b), para 10.7.11.

  110. 110.

    Hong Kong Government (2018).

  111. 111.

    South China Morning Post (2004).

  112. 112.

    I.e., remnants of the Lung Tsun stone bridge: Hong Kong Government (2018).

  113. 113.

    South China Morning Post (2018c).

  114. 114.

    South China Morning Post (2017b).

  115. 115.

    Construction on the rail link was originally due to be completed by 2018.

  116. 116.

    E.g. in January 2017, it announced that 16,000 more residential units and 4.3 million sq ft of commercial space would be added.

  117. 117.

    Protection of the Harbour Ordinance, Cap. 531 (1997).

  118. 118.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), p. 7.

  119. 119.

    Glasgow City Council (2010), p. 8.

  120. 120.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 35.

  121. 121.

    Glasgow City Council (2017a), p. 35.

  122. 122.

    Aberdeen City Council (2012, 2016).

  123. 123.

    Aberdeen City Council (2016), p. 2.

  124. 124.

    Dundee City Council (2016), p. 12.

  125. 125.

    A ‘2050 Edinburgh city vision’ is currently being discussed in consultation with the public: Edinburgh City Council (2017).

  126. 126.

    Hong Kong Government (2007), p. 95.

  127. 127.

    Hong Kong Government (2016), pp. 56, 60.

  128. 128.

    South China Morning Post (2017c).

  129. 129.

    Brownfields reuse is one of 18 options proposed by the Task Force on Land Supply, currently the subject of a five-month public consultation process: South China Morning Post (2018d).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

    Elizabeth J. Brandon

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  1. Elizabeth J. Brandon
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. German Environment Agency, Dessau, Germany

    Harald Ginzky

  2. University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

    Elizabeth Dooley

  3. Specialist Group on Sustainable Soils and Desertification, IUCN World Commission on Environmental Law, Kleinmachnow, Germany

    Irene L. Heuser

  4. Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda

    Emmanuel Kasimbazi

  5. Research Centre for European Environmental Law, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany

    Till Markus

  6. Research Institute of Environmental Law, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

    Tianbao Qin

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Brandon, E.J. (2019). The Rehabilitation of Contaminated Land to Enhance Future Options for Cities. In: Ginzky, H., Dooley, E., Heuser, I., Kasimbazi, E., Markus, T., Qin, T. (eds) International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy 2018. International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy, vol 2018. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00758-4_9

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