Abstract
Fuel cells present a promising technology for providing clean, efficient electric power in a variety of applications. They are the most environmentally friendly alternative to internal combustion engine technology in vehicles. They also have applications in portable electronics, as well as distributed and back-up power. The last few years have witnessed a tremendous increase in the research and development of fuel cells, including the development of new materials, new system designs, and new operating methods. While many breakthroughs have been made, technical and economic barriers for commercialization still exist. For a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) – the most promising fuel cell technology – to be used commercially in stationary or transportation applications, cost and durability are the major challenges. In transportation applications, fuel cell technologies face more stringent cost and durability requirements: a fuel cell system needs to cost less than $50/kW with a 5,000 hour lifespan (150,000 miles equivalent) and have the ability to function over the full range of vehicle operating conditions (–40 to +90 °C). For stationary applications, a fuel cell system operating on natural gas needs to achieve 40% electrical efficiency and 40,000 hours durability at $750/kW [1]. To be commercially viable, however, fuel cell systems must also exhibit adequate reliability in operation, even when the fuel cells are subjected to conditions outside the preferred operating range. As PEMFCs approach commercialization, significant progress is being made towards producing systems that achieve the optimum balance of cost, efficiency, reliability, and durability.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
References
US Department of Energy [homepage on the Internet]. Washington, DC. c2007 [updated 2007 Oct]. DOE Multi-year research, development and demonstration plan: planned program activities for 2005–2015. Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/mypp/pdfs/fuel_cells.pdf
Cleghorn SJC, Mayfield DK, Moore DA, Moore JC, Rusch G, Sherman TW, et al. A polymer electrolyte fuel cell life test: 3 years of continuous operation. J Power Sources 2006;158:446–54.
Borup RL, Davey JR, Garzon FH, Wood DL, Inbody MA. PEM fuel cell electrocatalyst durability measurements. J Power Sources 2006;163:76–81.
Li J, He P, K Wang, Davis M, Ye S. Characterization of catalyst layer structural changes in PEMFC as a function of durability testing. ECS Transactions 2006;3.1:743–51.
Ye S, Hall M, Cao H, He P. Degradation resistant cathodes in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. ECS Transactions 2006;3.1:657–66.
Borup R, Meyers J, Pivovar B, Kim YS, Mukundan R, Nancy G. et al. Scientific aspects of polymer electrolyte fuel cell durability and degradation. Chem Rev 2007;107:3904–51.
Hao T, Zhigang Q, Manikandan R, Elter JF. PEM fuel cell cathode carbon corrosion due to the formation of air/fuel boundary at the anode. J Power Sources 2006;158:1306–12.
Yu X, Ye S. Recent advances in activity and durability enhancement of Pt/C catalytic cathode in PEMFC Part I. Physico-chemical and electronic interaction between Pt and carbon support, and activity enhancement of Pt/C catalyst. J Power Sources 2007;172:133–44.
Yu X, Ye S. Recent advances in activity and durability enhancement of Pt/C catalytic cathode in PEMFC Part II: Degradation mechanism and durability enhancement of carbon supported platinum catalyst. J Power Sources 2007;172:145–54.
Costamagna P, Srinivasan S. Quantum jumps in the PEMFC science and technology from the 1960s to the year 2000: part i. fundamental scientific aspects. J Power Sources 2001;102:242–52.
Passalacqua E, Vivaldi M, Giordano N, Anotonucci PL, Kinoshita K. In: Proceedings of the 27th intersociety energy conversion engineering conference. 1992;929294:3.425–31.
Knights SD, Wilkinson DP, Campbell SA, Taylor JL, Gascoyne JM, Ralph TR. PCT WO 01/15247 A2, 1 March 2001.
Taylor JL, Wilkinson DP, Wainwright DS, Ralph TR, Knights SD. PCT WO 01/15249 A2, 1 March 2001.
Ye S, Beattie P, Campbell SA, Wilkinson DP. Anode catalyst compositions for a voltage reversal tolerant fuel cell. US Patent Appl 2004/0013935.
Ye S, Beattie P, Bai K. 2005 Fuel Cell Seminar. November 14–18, 2005. Palm Springs, CA, USA.
Ye S, Stability of anode catalysts and their effect on PEMFC performance degradation. Presentation to Gordon Research Conference, July 22–27, 2007. Bryant University, Rhode Island, USA.
Ralph TR, Hogarth MP. Catalysis for low-temperature fuel cells, Part II: the anode challenges. Platinum Metals Rev 2002;46:117–35.
Knights SD, Colbow KM, St-Pierre J, Wilkinson DP. Aging mechanisms and lifetime of PEFC and DMFC. J Power Sources 2002;127:127–34.
Taniguchi A, Akita T, Yasuda K, Miyazaki Y. Analysis of electrocatalyst degradation in PEMFC caused by cell reversal during fuel starvation. J Power Sources 2004;130:42–9.
Tsutsumi Y, Sone I, Nanba Y. In: Abstract of the 1986 fuel cell seminar. 1986 Oct 26–29; Tucson, AZ; 110.
Mitsuda K, Murahashi T. Air and fuel starvation of phosphoric acid fuel cells: a study using a single cell with multi-reference electrodes. J Appl Electrochem 1991;21:524–30.
Mitsuda K, Murahashi T. Polarization study of a fuel cell with four reference electrodes. J Electrochem Soc 1990;137:3079–85.
Sakamoto S, Karakane M, Maeda H, Miyake Y, Susai T, Isono T. In: Abstract of the 2000 fuel cell seminar. 2000 Oct 30–Nov 2; Portland, OR;141.
Billings RE. The hydrogen world view. Independence, MO: American Academy of Science, 1991.
Bevers D, Wohr M, Yasuda K, Oguro K. Simulation of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell electrode. J Appl Electrochem 1997;27:1254–64.
Lemons RA. Fuel cells for transportation. J Power Sources 1990;29:251–64.
Bernadi D, Verbrugge M. A mathematical model of the solid-polymer-electrolyte fuel cell. J Electrochem Soc 1992;139:2477–91.
Knights SD, De Vaal JW, Lauritzen MV, Wilkinson DP. Electrochemical fuel cell stack having a plurality of integrated voltage reversal protection diodes. US Patent 7235315. 2007.
Barton RH. Cell voltage monitor for a fuel cell stack. US Patent 6724194. 2004.
Knights SD, Taylor JL, Wilkinson DP, Wainwright DS. Fuel cell anode structures for voltage reversal tolerance. US Patent 6517962. 2003.
Tüber K, Pócza D, Hebling C. Visualization of water buildup in the cathode of a transparent pem fuel cell. J Power Sources 2003;124:403–14.
Park GG, Sohn YJ, Yang TH, Yoon YG, Lee WY, Kim CS. Effect of PTFE contents in the gas diffusion media on the performance of PEMFC. J Power Sources 2004;131:182–7.
Wei ZD, Ji MB, Hong Y, Sun CS, Chan SH, Shen PK. MnO2–Pt/C composite electrodes for preventing voltage reversal effects with polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.J Power Sources 2006;160:246–51.
Knights SD, Taylor JL, Wilkinson DP, Campbell SA. PCT WO 01/15254 A2, 1 March 2001.
Tomcsányi L, De Battisti A, Hirschberg G, Varga K, Liszi J. The study of the electrooxidation of chloride at RuO2/TiO2 electrode using CV and radiotracer techniques and evaluating by electrochemical kinetic simulation methods. Electrochim Acta 1999;44:2463–72.
Consonni V, Trasatti S, Pollak F, O’Grady WE. Mechanism of chlorine evolution on oxide anodes study of pH effects. J Electroanal Chem 1987;228:393–406.
De Faria LA, Boodts JFC, Trasatti S. Electrocatalytic properties of Ru + Ti + Ce mixed oxide electrodes for the Cl2 evolution reaction. Electrochim Acta 1997;42:3525–50.
Arikado T, Iwakura C, Tamura H. Some oxide catalysts for the anodic evolution of chlorine: reaction mechanism and catalytic activity. Electrochim Acta 1978;23:9–15.
Alves VA, Da Silva LA, Boodts JFC, Trasatti S. Kinetics and mechanism of oxygen evolution on IrO2-based electrodes containing Ti and Ce acidic solutions. Electrochim Acta 1994;39:1585–9.
Mráz R, Srb V, Tich´y S. Experimental activation energies for evolution of oxygen and chlorine on oxide electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1973;18:551–4.
Beer H. British Patent 1,147,442. 1969.
Yeo RS, Orehotsky J, Visscher W, Srinivasan S. Ruthenium-based mixed oxides as electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution in acid electrolytes. J Electrochem Soc 1981;9:1900–4.
Melsheimer J, Ziegler D. The oxygen electrode reaction in acid solution on RuO2 electrode prepared by the thermal decomposition method. Thin Solid Films 1988;163:301–8.
Loucka T. The reason for the loss of activity of titanium anodes coated with a layer of RuO2 and TiO2. J Appl Electrochem 1977;7:211–4.
Iwakura C, Sakamoto K. Effect of active layer composition on the service life of (SnO2 and RuO2)-coated Ti electrodes in sulfuric acid solution. J Electrochem Soc 1985;132:2420–3.
Burke LD, McCarthy M. Oxygen gas evolution at, and deterioration of, RuO2/ZrO2-coated titanium anodes at elevated temperature in strong base. Eletrochim Acta 1984;29:211–6.
Terezo AJ, Pereira EC. Preparation and characterization of Ti/RuO2–Nb2O5 electrodes obtained by polymeric precursor method. Electrochim Acta 1999;44:4507–13.
Musiani M, Furlanetto F, Bertoncello R. Electrodeposited PbO2+RuO2: a composite anode for oxygen evolution from sulphuric acid solution. J Electroanal Chem 1999;465:160–7.
Bertoncello R, Cattarin S, Frateur I, Musiani M. Preparation of anodes for oxygen evolution by electrodeposition of composite oxides of Pb and Ru on Ti. J Electroanal Chem 2000;492:145–9.
Da Silva LM, De Faria LA, Boodts JFC. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopic (EIS) investigation of the deactivation mechanism, surface and electrocatalytic properties of Ti/RuO2(x)+Co3O4(1 x) electrodes. J Electroanal Chem 2002;532:141–50.
Hine F, Yasuda M, Noda T, Yoshida T, Okuda J. Electrochemical Behavior of the oxide-coated metal anodes. J Electrochem Soc 1979;126:1439–45.
Rasten E, Hagen G, Tunold R. Proc. energy and electro chemical processes for a cleaner environment. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society, 1991;151.
Rasten E, Hagen G, Tunold R. Electrocatalysis in water electrolysis with solid polymer electrolyte. Electrochim Acta 2003;48:3945–52.
Marshall A, Børresen B, Hagen G, Tsypkin M, Tunold R. First European hydrogen energy conference. 2003 Sep 2–5; Grenoble, France; CO1/71.
Marshall A, Børresen B, Hagen G, Tsypkin M, Tunold R. Nanocrystalline IrxSn(1-x)O2 electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution in water electrolysis with polymer electrolyte – effect of heat treatment. J New Mat Electrochem Syst 2004;7:197–204.
Gottesfeld S, Zawodzinski T. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells. In: Advances in electrochemical science and engineering. Alkire RC, Gerischer H, Kolb DM, Tobias CW, editors. Vol. 5. New York: Wiley, 1997;195–301.
Wilson M, Gottesfeld S. Thin-film catalyst layers for polymer electrolyte fuel cell electrodes. J Appl Electrochem 1992;22:1–7.
Millet P, Pineri M, Durand R. New solid polymer electrolyte composites for water electrolysis. J Appl Electrochem 1989;19:162–6.
Takenaka H, Torikai E, Kawami Y, Wakabayashi N. Solid polymer electrolyte water electrolysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy 1982;7:397–403.
Adams R, Shriner R. Platinum oxide as a catalyst in the reduction of organic compounds. III. Preparation and properties of the oxide of platinum obtained by the fusion of chloroplatinic acid with sodium nitrate. J Am Chem Soc 1923;45:2171–9.
Hutchings R, Müller L, Stucki S. A structural investigation of stabilized oxygen evolution catalysts.J Mater Sci 1984;19:3987–94.
Murakami Y, Ohkawauchi H, Ito M, Yahikozawa K, Takasu Y. Preparations of ultrafine IrO2-SnO2 binary oxide particles by a sol-gel process. Electrochim Acta 1994;39:2551–4.
Murakami Y, Tsuchiya S, Yahikozawa K, Takasu Y. Preparation of ultrafine IrO2-Ta2O5 binary oxide particles by a sol-gel process. Electrochim Acta 1994;39:651–4.
Ito M, Murakami Y, Kaji H, Ohawauchi H, Yahikozawa K, Takasu Y. Preparation of ultrafine RuO2-SnO2 binary oxide particles by a sol-gel process. J Electrochem Soc 1994;141:1243–5.
Kameyama K, Shohji S, Onoue S, Nishimura K, Yahikozawa K, Takasu Y. Preparation of ultrafine RuO2-TiO2 binary oxide particles by a sol-gel process. J Electrochem Soc 1993;140:1034–7.
Lassali T, Boodts J, Bulhoes L. Effect of Sn-precursor on the morphology and composition of Ir0.3Sn0.7O2 oxide films prepared by sol–gel process. J Non-Cryst Solids 2000;273:129–34.
Boiadjieva T, Cappelletti G, Ardizzone S, Rondinini S, Vertova A. Nanocrystalline titanium oxide by sol–gel method. The role of the solvent removal step. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2003;5:1689–94.
Bönnemann H, Richards R. Nanoscopic Metal Particles – Synthetic Methods and Potential Applications. Euro J Inorg Chem 2001;2001:2455–80.
Toshima N, Yonezawa T. Bimetallic nanoparticles—novel materials for chemical and physical applications. New J Chem 1998;22:1179–201.
Bonet F, Delmas V, Grugeon S, Herrera-Urbina R, Silvert P, Tekaia-Elhsissen K. Synthesis of monodisperse Au, Pt, Pd, Ru and Ir nanoparticles in ethylene glycol. Nanostruct Mater 1999;11:1277–84.
Kurihara L, Chow G, Schoen P. Nanocrystalline metallic powders and films produced by the polyol method. Nanostruct Mater 1995;5:607–13.
Trasatti S. Physical electrochemistry of ceramic oxides. Electrochim Acta 1991;36:225–41.
Marshall A, Børresen B, Hagen G, Tsypkin M, Tunold R. Preparation and characterisation of nanocrystalline IrxSn1 xO2 electrocatalytic powders. Mater Chem Phys 2005;94:226–32
Chen XM, Chen GH, Yue PL. Stable Ti/IrOx-Sb2O5-SnO2 Anode for O2 Evolution with Low Ir Content. J Phys Chem B 2001;105:4623–8.
Chen GH, Chen XM, Yue PL. Electrochemical Behavior of Novel Ti/IrOx-Sb2O5-SnO2 Anodes. J Phys Chem B 2002;106:4364–9.
Chen X, Chen G. Stable Ti/RuO2–Sb2O5–SnO2 electrodes for O2 evolution. Electrochim Acta 2005;50:4155–9.
De Faria LA, Boodts JFC, Trasatti S. Physico-chemical and electrochemical characterization of Ru-based ternary oxides containing Ti and Ce. Electrochim Acta 1992;37:2511–8.
Da Silva LM, Boodts JFC, De Faria LA. Oxygen evolution at RuO2(x)+Co3O4(1 x) electrodes from acid solution. Electrochim Acta 2001;46:1369–75.
De Pauli CP, Trasatti S. Composite materials for electrocatalysis of O2 evolution: IrO2+SnO2 in acid solution. J Electroanal Chem 2002;538:145–51.
Da Silva LM, Boodts JFC, De Faria LA. Chlorine evolution reaction at Ti/(RuO2 +Co3O4) electrodes. J Braz Chem Soc 2003;14:388–95.
De Faria LA, Boodts JFC, Trasatti S. Electrocatalytic properties of ternary oxide mixtures of composition Ru0.3Ti(0.7 x)CexO2: oxygen evolution from acidic solution. J Appl Electrochem 1996;26:1195–9.
Santana MHP, Da Silva LM, De Faria LA. Investigation of surface properties of Rubased oxide electrodes containing Ti, Ce and Nb. Electrochim Acta 2003;48:1885–91.
Santana MHP, De Faria LA. Oxygen and chlorine evolution on RuO2+ TiO2 + CeO2 + Nb2O5 mixed oxide electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2006;51:3578–85.
Dhar HP. A unitized approach to regenerative solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Appl Electrochem 1992;23:32–7.
Shao Z, Yi B, Han M. Bifunctional electrodes with a thin catalyst layer for ‘unitized' proton exchange membrane regenerative fuel cell. J Power Sources 1999;79:82–5.
Swette LL, Laconti AB, McCatty SA. Proton-exchange membrane regenerative fuel cells. J Power Sources 1994;47:343–51.
Chen G, Delafuente DA, Sarangapani S, Mallouk TE. Combinatorial discovery of bifunctional oxygen reduction – water oxidation electrocatalysts for regenerative fuel cells. Catalysis Today 2001;67:341–55.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer London
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ye, S. (2008). Reversal-tolerant Catalyst Layers. In: Zhang, J. (eds) PEM Fuel Cell Electrocatalysts and Catalyst Layers. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-936-3_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-936-3_17
Publisher Name: Springer, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-84800-935-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-84800-936-3
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)