Abstract
Most anatomical birth defects can be classified either as deformations, alterations in shape or structure of a normally formed part, such as congenital torticollis and some types of clubfoot; or malformations, primary structural defects that result from an error in morphogenesis. (Morphogenesis refers, in this context, to the progressive emergence of organized structures in the embryo.) Normal morphogenesis depends on a system of highly integrated and interacting sets of reactions. The embryonic cells are programmed in such a way that certain genes are turned on in the cells of certain tissues and others remain inactive, according to a progressive set of nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions. At this level of interaction, the production of abnormal molecules (enzymes, organelle components, membrane constituents, intercellular matrix) or the production of normal molecules at altered rates or at the wrong time may change the properties of the cells or their products, leading to errors in development. At another level of interaction, normal development depends on the properties of groups of cells, tissues, or organs and their relations to one another. There may be interaction of cells within a tissue, for example, when a group of cells has to reach a certain critical mass for its cellular components to proceed with differentiation and organ formation. Or there may be interaction between tissues. One tissue may require an inductive stimulus from another before it will proceed further along its developmental pathway. Or two or more tissues may need to meet one another by merging or fusion to form a structure. These kinds of interaction often involve a developmental threshold, in which the structure is morphologically normal if the threshold is reached and abnormal if it is not; this threshold concept has been dealt with in Chapter 3, Vol. 1.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramovich, A., 1972, Cleft palate in the fetuses of lathyric rats and its relation to other structures: Nasal septum, tongue and mandible, Cleft Palate J. 9(1):73.
Angelici, D., and Pourtois, M., 1968, The role of acid phosphatase in the fusion of the secondary palate, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 20:15.
Andersen, H., and Matthiessen, M., 1967, Histochemistry of the early development of the human central face and nasal cavity with a special reference to the movement and fusion of the processes, Acta Anat. 68:473.
Andersen, H., and Matthiessen, M. E., 1968, Single-egg human twin foetuses with harelip and cleft palate, Acta Anat. 70:219.
Bahkdinaronk, A., Eto, K., and Johnston, M. C., 1976, The pathogenesis of malformation following X-irradiation of mouse embryos during neural plate formation (in preparation).
Baird, G., and Verrusio, A. C., 1973, Inhibition of palatal fusion in vitro by β-2-thienylalanine, Teratology 7:37.
Bollert, J. A., and Hendrickx, A. G., 1971, Morphogenesis of the palate in the baboon (Papio cynocephalus), Teratology 4(3):343.
Bullough, W. S., 1962, Growth control in mammalian skin, Nature 193:520.
Burdi, A., Feingold, M., Larsson, K. S., Leck, I., Zimmerman, E. F., and Fraser, F. C., 1972, Etiology and pathogenesis of congenital cleft lip and cleft palate, an NIDR state of the art report, Teratology 6(3):255.
Chase, H. B., and Chase, E. B., 1941, Studies on an anophthalmic strain of mice, 1. Embryology of the eye-region, J. Morphol. 68:279.
Chaudhry, A. P., and Shah, R. M., 1973, Palatogenesis in hamster. II. Ultrastructural observations on the closure of palate, J. Morphol. 139(3):329.
Chung, C. S., and Myrianthopoulos, N. C., 1968, Racial and prenatal factors in major congenital malformations, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 20:44.
Coleman, R. D., 1965, Development of the rat palate, Anat. Rec. 151:107.
DeAngelis, V., and Nalbandian, J., 1968, Ultrastructure of mouse and rat palatal processes prior to and during secondary palate formation, Arch. Oral Biol. 13:601.
DeMyer, W., and Baird, I., 1969, Mortality and skeletal malformations from amniocentesis and oligohydramnios in rats: Cleft palate, clubfoot, microstomia and adactyly, Teratology 2(1):33.
Deol, M. S., and Lane, P. W., 1966, A new gene affecting the morphogenesis of the vestibular part of the inner ear in the mouse, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 16:543.
Dostal, M., and Jelinek, R., 1974, Morphogenesis of cleft palate induced by exogenous factors VI the question of delayed palatal and process horizontalization, Teratology 10:47.
Fairbanks, M. B., and Kollar, E. J., 1974, Inhibition of palatal fusion in vitro by hadacidin, Teratology 9(2):169.
Farbman, A. L, 1968, Electron microscope study of palate fusion in mouse embryos, Dev. Biol. 18:93.
Fitch, N. S., 1957, An embryological analysis of two mutants in the house mouse, both producing cleft palate, J. Exp. Zool. 136:329.
Fitch, N., 1961, Development of cleft palate in mice homozygous for the shorthead mutation, J. Morphol. 109:151.
Fraser, F. C., 1971, Etiology of cleft lip and palate in: Cleft Lip and Palate (W. C. Grabb, S. Rosenstein, and K. R. Bzoch, eds.), Chapter 3, Little Brown, Boston.
Fraser, F. C., and Rosen, J., 1975, Association of cleft lip and atrial septal defect in the mouse, Teratology 11(3):321.
Fraser, F. C., Chew, D., and Verrusio, A. C., 1967, Oligohydramnios and cortisone-induced cleft palate in the mouse, Nature 214:417.
Frederiks, E., 1973, Vascular pattern in embryos with clefts of primary and secondary palate, Ergeb. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 46(6):1.
Greene, R. M., and Kochhar, D. M., 1973a, Palatal closure in the mouse as demonstrated in frozen sections, Am. J. Anat. 137(4):477.
Greene, R. M., and Kochhar, D. M., 1973b, Spatial relations in the oral cavity of cortisone-treated mouse fetuses during the time of secondary palate closure, Teratology 8(2):153.
Greene, R. M., and Kochhar, D., 1974, Surface coat on the epithelium of developing palatine shelves in the mouse as revealed by electron microscopy. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 31:683.
Gregg, J. M., and Avery, J. K., 1971, Experimental studies of vascular development in normal and cleft palate embryos, Cleft Palate J. 8:101.
Grüneberg, H., 1952, Genetical studies on the skeleton of the mouse. IV. Quasi-continuous variations, J. Genet. 51:95.
Grüneberg, H., and Truslove, G. M., 1960, Two closely linked genes in the mouse, Genet. Res. Camb. 1:69.
Harris, J. W. S., 1964, Oligohydramnios and cortisone-induced cleft palate, Nature 203:533.
Harris, J. W. S., 1967, Experimental studies on closure and cleft formation in the secondary palate, Sci. Basis Med. Annu. Rev., Chapter XX, p. 356–370.
Hart, J. C., Smiley, G. R., and Dixon, A. D., 1969, Sagittal growth of the craniofacial complex in normal embryonic mice, Arch. Oral Biol. 14:995.
Hart, J. C., Smiley, G. R., and Dixon, A. D., 1972, Sagittal growth trends of the craniofacial complex during formation of the secondary palate in mice. Teratology 6(1):43.
Hudson, C. D., and Shapiro, B. L., 1973, A radioautographic study of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in embryonic rat palatal shelf epithelium with reference to the concept of programed cell death, Arch. Oral Biol. 18(1):77.
Humphrey, T., 1969, The relation between human fetal mouth opening reflexes and closure of the palate, Am. J. Anat. 125(3):317.
Iizuka, T., 1973, Stage of the formation of the human upper lip, Okajimas Folia Anat. Jpn. 50(5):307.
Jacobs, R. M., 1966, Effects of cortisone acetate upon hydration of embryonic palate in two inbred strains of mice, Anat. Rec. 156:1.
Jacobson, A. G., 1966, Inductive processes in embryonic development, Science 152:25.
Johnston, M. C., and Listgarten, M. A., 1972, The migration interaction and early differentiation of oro-facial tissues, in: Developmental Aspects of Oral Biology (H. S. Slavkin and L. A. Bavetta, eds.), p. 53, Academic Press, New York.
Kochhar, D. M., 1973, Limb development in mouse embryos. I. Analysis of teratogenic effects of retinoic acid, Teratology 7(3):289.
Kochhar, D. M., and Johnson, E. M., 1965, Morphological and autoradiographic studies of cleft palate induced in rat embryos by maternal hypervitaminosis A. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 14:223.
Lahti, A., and Saxen, L., 1967, Effect of hydrocortisone on the closure of palatal shelves in vivo and in vitro, Nature 216:1217.
Lahti, A., Antilla, E., and Saxén, L., 1972, The effect of hydrocortisone on the closure of the palatal shelves in two inbred strains of mice in vivo and in vitro, Teratology 6(1):37.
Larsson, K. S., 1962, Closure of the secondary palate and its relation to sulpho-mucopolysaccharides, Acta Odontol. Scand. 20(Suppl. 31):5.
Lazzaro, C., 1942, Sul meccanismo di chiusura del palato secondario, Monit. Zool. Ital. 51:249.
Lejour, M., 1970a, Cleft lip induced in the rat, Cleft Palate J. 7:169.
Lejour, M., 1970b, Pathogénie des fentes labiomaxillairy provoquées chez le rat par l’hadacidine, in: Editions de Archives de Biologie, pp. 1–108, Vaillant-Carmanne, Liège, Belgium.
Lejour-Jeanty, M., 1965, Étude morphologique et cytochemique du développement du palais primaire chez le rat (Complete des observations chez le lapin et l’homme), Arch. Biol. 76:97.
Lejour-Jeanty, M., 1966, Becs de lièvre provoqués chez le rat par un derive de la pénicilline, l’hadacidin, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol 15:193.
Leong, S., 1973, Face shape and mitotic index in mice with teratogen-induced and inherited cleft lip, M.Sc. thesis, McGill University.
Lessard, J. L., Wee, E. L., and Zimmerman, E. F., 1974, The presence of contractile proteins in mouse fetal palate prior to shelf elevation. Teratology 9(1):113.
Long, S. V., Larsson, K. S., and Lohmander, S., 1973, Cell proliferation in the cranial base of A-J mice with 6-AN-induced cleft palate, Teratology 8(2):127.
Masuyama, Y., 1959, Experimental studies on the genesis of cleft palate due to X-ray irradiation, Univ. Osaka, J. Dent. 4:847.
Mato, M., Aikawa, E., and Katahira, M., 1967, Alteration of fine structure of the epithelium on the lateral palatine shelf during the secondary palate formation, Gunma. J. Med. Sci. 16:79.
Matthiessen, M., and Andersen, H., 1972, Disintegration of the junctional epithelium of human fetal hard palate, Z. Anal. Entwicklungsgesch. 137(2):153.
Morgan, P. R., 1969, Recent studies on the fusion of the secondary palate, London Hosp. Gaz. Clin. Sci. Suppl. 62(3):VI.
Morgan, P. R., and Harris, J. W. S., 1968, Observations on meclozine-induced cleft palate in rat embryos, J. Dent. Res. 46:1271A.
Morgan, P. R., and Harris, J. W. S., 1973, The fate of the palatal epithelium in rat embryos with experimentally induced cleft palate—an ultrastructural study, Teratology 8:230.
Nanda, R., 1969, The normal palate and induced cleft palate in rat embryos, Ph.D. thesis, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
Pai, A. C., 1965, Developmental genetics of a lethal mutation, muscular dysgenesis(mdg), in the mouse. I. Genetic analysis and gross morphology. II. Developmental analysis, Dev. Biol. 11:82; 93.
Poswillo, D., 1966, Observations of fetal posture and causal mechanisms of congenital deformity of palate, mandible and limbs, J. Dent. Res. Suppl. 3 45:584.
Poswillo, D. E., 1968, Cleft palate in the rat, Lab. Anim. 2:181.
Pourtois, M., 1970, La resorption des murs epitheliaux au cours de la formation du palais primaire et du palais secondaire, Bull. Group. Int. Rech. Sci. Stomatol. 13:465.
Pourtois, M., 1972, Morphogenesis of the primary and secondary palate, in: Developmental Aspects of Oral Biology (H. S. Slavkin and L. A. Bavetta, eds.), Chapter 5, Academic Press, New York and London.
Pratt, R. M., Jr., and King, C. T., 1971, Collagen synthesis in the secondary palate of the developing rat, Arch. Oral Biol. 16(10):1181.
Pratt, R. M., Gibson, W. A., and Hassell, J. R., 1973, Concanavalin A binding to the secondary palate of the embryonic rat, J. Dent. Res. 52:111.
Saxén, I., 1973, Effects of hydrocortisone on the development in vitro of the secondary palate in two inbred strains of mice, Arch. Oral Biol. 18(12):1469.
Sharma, L. K., 1974, Median cleft of the upper lip, Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 53(2):155.
Shih, L. Y., Trasler, D. G., and Fraser, F. C., 1974, Relation of mandible growth to palate closure in mice, Teratology 9(2):191.
Smiley, G. R., 1970, Fine structure of mouse embryonic palatal epithelium prior to and after midline fusion, Arch. Oral Biol. 15:287.
Smiley, G. R., and Koch, W. E., 1972, An in vitro and in vivo study of single palatal processes, Anat. Rec. 173(4):405.
Smith, S. C., and Monie, I. W., 1969, Normal and abnormal nasolabial morphogenesis in the rat, Teratology 1:1.
Trasler, D. G., 1965, Aspirin-induced cleft lip and other malformations in mice, Lancet 1:606.
Trasler, D. G., 1966, Mouse heart size during lip formation in cleft lip embryos, Abstracts of papers of Sixth Annual meeting of the Teratology Society, p. 25, Corpus Christi, Texas.
Trasler, D. G., 1968, Pathogenesis of cleft lip and its relation to embryonic face shape in A/J and C57BL mice, Teratology 1:33.
Trasler, D. G., and Fraser, F. C., 1963, Role of the tongue in producing cleft palate in mice with spontaneous cleft lip, Dev. Biol. 6:45.
Trasler, D. G., and Leong, S., 1974, Face shape and mitotic index in mice with 6-aminonicotinamide-induced and inherited cleft lip, Teratology 9:A39.
Trasler, D. G., Walker, B. E., and Fraser, F. C., 1956, Congenital malformations produced by amniotic-sac puncture, Science 124:439.
Vargas, Idoyaga V., Nasjleti, C. E. D., and Axcurra, J. M., 1972, Cytodifferentiation of the mouse secondary palate in vitro; morphological, biochemical and histochemical aspects, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 27(2):413.
Vermeij-Keers, C., 1972, Transformations in the facial region of the human embryo, Ergeh. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 46(5):3.
Verrusio, A. C., 1970, A mechanism for closure of the secondary palate, Teratology 3:17.
Walker, B. E., 1959, Effects on palate development of mechanical interference with the fetal environment, Science 130(3381):981.
Walker, B. E., 1961, The association of mucopolysaccharides with morphogenesis of the palate and other structures in mouse embryos, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 9(1):22.
Walker, B. E., 1969, Correlation of embryonic movement with palate closure in mice, Teratology 2:191.
Walker, B. E., 1971a, Induction of cleft palate in rats with antiinflammatory drugs, Teratology 4(1):39.
Walker, B. E., 1971b, Palate morphogenesis in the rabbit, Arch. Oral Biol. 16:275.
Walker, B. E., 1974, Palate closure in strain CD-I mice, J. Dent. Res. 53:1497.
Walker, B. E., and Fraser, F. C., 1956, Closure of the secondary palate in three strains of mice, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 4:176.
Walker, B. E., and Fraser, F. C., 1957, The embryology of cortisone-induced cleft palate, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 5:201.
Walker, B. E., and Ross, L. M., 1972, Observation of palatine shelves in living rabbit embryos, Teratology 5(1):97.
Warbrick, J. G., 1960, The early development of the nasal cavity, J. Anat. 94:351.
Waterman, R. E., and Meller, S. M., 1973a, Nasal pit formation in the hamster; a transmission and scanning electron microscopic study, Dev. Biol. 34:255.
Waterman, R. E., and Meller, S. M., 1973b, A scanning electron microscope study of secondary palate formation in the human, Anat. Rec. 175(2):464.
Waterman, R. E., Ross, L. M., and Meller, S. M., 1973, Alterations in the epithelial surface of A-Jax mouse palatal shelves prior to and during palatal fusion: A scanning electron microscopic study, Anat. Rec. 176(3):361.
Weissmann, G., and Thomas, L., 1963, Studies on lysosomes II. The effect of cortisone on the release of acid hydrolases from a large granule fraction of rabbit liver induced by an excess of vitamin A, J. Clin. Invest. 42:661.
Wragg, L. E., Klein, M., Steinvorth, G., and Warpeha, R., 1970, Facial growth accommodating secondary palate closure in rat and man, Arch. Oral Biol. 15:705.
Wragg, L. E., Smith, J. A., and Borden, C. S., 1972a, Myoneural maturation and function of the foetal rat tongue at the time of secondary palate closure, Arch. Oral Biol. 17(4):673.
Wragg, L. E., Diewert, V. M., and Klein, M., 1972b, Spatial relations in the oral cavity and the mechanism of secondary palate closure in the rat, Arch. Oral Biol. 17(4):683.
Zimmerman, E. F., Andrew, F., and Kalter, H., 1970, Glucocorticoid inhibition of RNA synthesis-responsible for cleft palate in mice: A model, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 67(2):779.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1977 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Trasler, D.G., Fraser, C. (1977). Time-Position Relationships. In: Wilson, J.G., Fraser, F.C. (eds) Handbook of Teratology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8933-4_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8933-4_11
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-8935-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-8933-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive