Abstract
Scientists have studied individual differences in imagery for well over a hundred years (e.g., Galton, 1880). During all this time, theorists have favored data-driven models in explaining imagery differences, such as those that assume the differences result from either the latency or the perceptual clarity with which images are formed. These data-driven models have had little to say about the role that prior knowledge or belief systems play in producing individual variability in image arousal or effectiveness. To emphasize the importance of concept-driven components, Katz (1983) proposed an interactive model in which he postulated that imaginal effectiveness results, in part, from the conjoint influence of three related knowledge states. These states can be characterized as “how-to knowledge,” “when-to knowledge,” and “self-knowledge.” The goal of the interactive model is to undrstand when and how people use imagery meditators in their everyday activities. From this perspective, the research questions of interest revolve around the conditions under which imaginal processes are spontaneously employed. The present chapter is directed at separately examining the three knowledge states suggested by the model as they relate to money-relevant situations. We should begin with a warming: imagery effects in memory have been widely discussed in the 15 years since the epochal book by Paivio (1971) and yet there is a relative paucity of research performed on the type of question to which we are directed by the interactional model. In this chapter the relevant literarure is reviewed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, J. (1976). Language, memory and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Baddeley, A., & Warrington, E. (1973). Memory coding and amnesia. Neuropsychologia, 11, 159–165.
Baker, L., & Santa, J. (1977). Context integration and retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 5, 308–314.
Begg, I. (1982). Imagery, organization, and discriminative processes. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 36, 273–290.
Begg, I. (1983). Imagery instructions and the organization of memory. In J. Yuille (Ed.), Imagery, memory and cognition (pp. 91–115). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Bellezza, F. (1984). The self as a mnemonic device: The role of internal cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 506–516.
Bower, G. (1970). Imagery as a relational organizer in associative learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 29, 529–533.
Bower, G. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In L. W. Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in learning and memory. New York: Wiley.
Bower, G., & Gilligan, S. (1979). Remembering information related to one’s self. Journal of Research in Personality, 13, 420–432.
Burnett, S., McLane, D., & Dratt, L. (1979). Spatial visualization and sex differences in quantitative ability. Intelligence, 3, 345–354.
Chaffin, R., Crawford, M., Herrmann, D., & Deffenbacker, K. (in press). Gender differences in the perception of memory abilities in others. Human Learning.
Chase, W., & Ericsson, K. (1982). Skill and working memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 16, pp. 1–58). New York: Academic Press.
Cooper, L. (1976). Individual differences in visual comparison processes. Perception and Psychophysics, 19, 433–444.
Corbett, A. (1977). Retrieval dynamics for rote and visual image mnemonics. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 233–246.
Danaher, B., & Thorensen, C. (1972). Imagery assessment by self-report and behavioral measures. Behavior Research and Therapy, 10, 131–138.
Day, J., & Bellezza, F. (1983). The relation between visual imagery mediators and recall. Memory and Cognition, 11, 251–257.
Delaney, H. (1978). Interaction of individual differences with visual and verbal elaboration instructions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 306–318.
Denis, M., & Carfantan, M. (1985). People’s knowledge about images. Cognition, 20, 49–60.
DiVesta, F., & Sunshine, P. (1974). The retrieval of abstract and concrete materials as function of imagery, mediation and mnemonic aids. Memory and Cognition, 2, 340–344.
Egan, D. (1979). Testing based on understanding: Implictions from studies of spatial ability. Intelligence, 3, 1–15.
Egan, D., & Grimes-Farrow, D. (1982). Differences in mental representations spontaneously adopted for reasoning. Memory and Cognition, 10, 297–307.
Ernest, C. (1977). Imagery ability and cognition: A critical review. Journal of Mental Imagery, 2, 181–216.
Ernest, C., & Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal associative latencies as a function of imagery ability. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 25, 83–90.
Finkenbinder, O. (1914). The remembrance of problems and of their solutions: A study in logical memory. American Journal of Psychology, 6, 400–413.
Fisher, C. (1916). The process of generalizing abstraction, and its product, the general concept. Psychological Monographs, 21, 150–180.
Fox, C. (1914). The conditions which arouse mental images in thought. British Journal of Psychology, 6, 420–431.
Galton, F. (1880). Statistics of mental imagery. Mind, 5, 301–318.
Gough, H., & Heilbrun, A. (1983). The adjective check list manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Greenwald, A. (1981). Self and memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and memory (Vol. 15, pp. 201–236). New York: Academic Press.
Gruneberg, M. (1978). The feeling of knowing, memory blocks and memory aids. In M. Gruenberg & P. Morris (Eds.), Aspects of Memory (pp. 186–209). London: Methuen.
Harris, J. (1980). Memory aids people use: Two interview studies. Memory and Cognition, 8, 31–38.
Helstrup, T. (1985). Self, imagery and memory: How are they related? Unpublished manuscript, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
Herrmann, D. (1982). Know thy memory: The use of questionnaires to assess and study memory. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 434–452.
Herrmann, D. (1984). Questionnaires about memory. In J. Harris & P. Morris (Eds.), Everyday Memory (pp. 133–151). London: Academic Press.
Herrmann, D., Grubs, L., Sigmundi, R., & Grueneich, R. (1983). Awareness of memory aptitude as a function of memory experience. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society Meeting, York, England, April 1983.
Howes, J. (1983). Effects of experimenter- and self-generated imagery on the Korsakoff patient’s memory performance. Neuropsychologia, 21, 341–349.
Janssen, W. (1976). Selective interference in paired-associate and free recall learning: Messing up the image. Acta Psychologica, 40, 35–48.
Katz, A. (1983). What does it mean to be a high imager? In J. Yuille (Ed.), Imagery, memory and cognition (pp. 39–63). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Katz, A. (1985). Self-reference in the encoding of creative-relevant traits. Unpublished manuscript, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Katz, A. N. (1984). Creative styles: Relating tests of creativity to the work patterns of scientists. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 281–292.
Kaufmann, G. (1985). Mental imagery and cognition. Unpublished book manuscript, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
Kosslyn, S. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kosslyn, S. (1983). Ghosts in the mind’s machine. New York: Norton.
Kosslyn, S., Brunn, J., Cave, K., & Wallach, R. (1984). Individual differences in mental imagery ability: A computational analysis. Cognition, 18, 195–243.
Lord, C. (1980). Schemas and images as memory aids: Two modes of processing social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 257–269.
Luria, A. (1968). The mind of a mnemonist. New York: Avon.
Mathews, N., Hunt, E., & MacLeod, C. (1980). Strategy choice and strategy training in sentence-picture verification. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 531–548.
McDaniel, M., & Kearney, E. (1984). Optimal learning strategies and their spontaneous use: The importance of task-appropriate processing. Memory and Cognition, 12, 361–373.
McDaniel, M., & Pressley, M. (1984). Putting the keyword method in context. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 598–609.
McDaniel, M., Lapsley, D., & Milstead, M. (1985). The encoding of self-features in memory: Release from proactive interference. Unpublished manuscript, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN.
McGivern, J., & Levin, J. (1983). The keyword method and children’s vocabulary learning: An interaction with vocabulary knowledge. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 46–57.
Miall, D. (1985). Emotion and the self: The context of remembering. Unpublished manuscript, College of St. Paul and St. Mary, Cheltenham, England.
Morris, P., & Hampson, P. (1983). Imagery and consciousness. London: Academic Press.
Mueller, J., Heesacker, M., & Ross, M. (1984). Body-image consciousness and self-reference effects in face recognition. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 277–279.
Mumaw, R., Pellegrino, J., Kail, R., & Carter, P. (1984). Different slopes for different folks: Process analysis of spatial aptitude. Memory and Cognition, 12, 515–521.
Murray, H. (1938). Exploration in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Paivio, A., & Harshman, R. (1983). Factor analysis of a questionnaire on imagery and verbal habits and skills. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 37, 461–483.
Paivio, A., & Yuille, J. (1967). Mediation instructions and word attributes in paired-associate learning. Psychonomic Science, 8, 65–66.
Paivio, A., & Yuille, J. (1969). Changes in associative strategies and paired-associate learning as a function of word imagery and type of learning set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 458–463.
Paivio, A., Smythe, P., & Yuille, J. (1968). Imagery versus meaningfulness of nouns in paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 22, 421–441.
Paivio, A., Yuille, J., & Smythe, P. (1966). Stimulus and response abstractions, imagery and meaningfulness and reported mediators in paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 20, 362–377.
Perlmutter, M. (1978). What is memory aging the aging of? Developmental Psychology, 14, 330–345.
Poltrock, S., & Brown, P. (1984). Individual differences in visual imagery and spatial ability. Intelligence, 8, 93–138.
Pressley, M., & Levin, J. (1978). Developmental constraints associated with children’s use of the keyword method of foreign language vocabulary learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 26, 359–372.
Pressley, M., & Levin, J. (1981). The keyword method and recall of vocabulary words from definitions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 72–76.
Pressley, M., Borkowski, J., & O’Sullivan, J. (1985). Children’s metamemory and the teaching of memory strategies. In D. Forrest-Pressley, G. MacKinnon, & T. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition and human performance, Vol. 1: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 111–153). New York: Academic Press.
Pressley, M., Borkowski, J., & Schneider, W. (in press). Good strategy users coordinate metacognition, strategy use, and knowledge. In R. Vasta & G. Whitehurst (Eds.), Annals of child development (Vol. 4). New York: JAI Press.
Pressley, M., Levin, J., & Ghatala, E. (1984). Memory-strategy monitoring in adults and children. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 270–288.
Pressley, M., Levin, J., Hall, J., Miller, G., & Berry, J. (1980). The keyword method and foreign word acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 163–173.
Pressley, M., Levin, J., Kuiper, N., Bryant, S., & Michener, S. (1982). Mnemonic versus nonmnemonic vocabulary-learning strategies: Additional comparisons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 693–707.
Pressley, M., Levin, J., Nakamura, G., Hope, D., Bishop, J., & Toye, A. (1980). The keyword method of foreign vocabulary learning: An investigation of its generalizability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 635–642.
Pressley, M., Ross, K., Levin, J., & Ghatala, E. (1984). The role of strategy utility knowledge in children’s strategy decision making. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 491–504.
Rawles, R. (1978). The past and present of mnemotechny. In M. Gruneberg, P Morris, & R. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp., 164–171). London: Academic Press.
Rehm, L. (1973). Relationships among measures of visual imagery. Behavior Research and Therapy, 11, 265–270.
Reese, H. (1977). Toward a cognitive theory of mnemonic imagery. Journal of Mental Imagery, 1, 229–244.
Richardson, J. (1978). Reported mediators and individual differences in mental imagery. Memory and Cognition, 6, 376–378.
Richardson, J. (1980). Mental imagery and human memory. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Richardson, J. (1985). Converging operations and reported mediators in the investigation of mental imagery. British Journal of Psychology, 76, 205–214.
Rimm, D., & Bottrell, J. (1969). Four measures of visual imagination. Behavior Research and Therapy, 7, 63–69.
Rogers, T. (1981). A model of the self as an aspect of the human information processing system. In N. Cantor & J. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition and social interaction (pp. 193–214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Rogers, T., Kuiper, N., & Kirker, W. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677–688.
Schneider, W. (1985). Developmental trends in the metamemory-memory behaviour relationship: An integrative review. In D. Forrest-Pressley, G. MacKinnon, & T. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition and human performance, Vol. 1: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 57–109). New York: Academic Press.
Sehulster, J. (1981a). Structure and pragmatics of a self-theory of memory. Memory and Cognition, 9, 263–276.
Sehulster, J. (1981b). Phenomenological correlates of a self theory of memory. American Journal of Psychology, 94, 527–537.
Simon, H. (1975). The functional equivalance of problem solving skills. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 268–288.
Slee, J. (1980). Individual differences in visual imagery ability and the retrieval of visual appearance. Journal of Mental Imagery, 4, 93–113.
Trick, L., & Katz, A. (1986). The domain interaction approach to metaphor processing: Relating individual differences and metaphor characteristics. Journal of Metaphor and Symbolic Activities, 1, 185–213.
Tulving, E., & Madigan, S. (1970). Memory and verbal learning. In P. Mussen & M. Rosezweig (Eds.), Annual Review of Psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 437–484). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
Wilding, J., & Valentine, E. (1985). One man’s memory for prose, faces and names. British Journal of Psychology, 76, 215–219.
Wood, G. (1967). Mnemonic systems in recalls. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 1–27.
Woods, E. (1915). An experimental study of the process of recognizing. American Journal of Psychology, 26, 313–387.
Yarmey, A. D., & Johnson, J. (1982). Evidence for the self as an imaginal prototype. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 238–246.
Yates, F. A. (1966). The art of memory. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1987 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Katz, A.N. (1987). Individual Differences in the Control of Imagery Processing: Knowing How, Knowing When, and Knowing Self. In: McDaniel, M.A., Pressley, M. (eds) Imagery and Related Mnemonic Processes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4676-3_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4676-3_8
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9111-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-4676-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive