Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Salt and Blood Pressure

  • Chapter
A Balanced Diet?

  • 408 Accesses

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease is now the most common cause of death in developed countries. Large-scale population follow-up studies have identified three major risk factors for cardiovascular disease: high blood pressure, high blood lipids and cigarette smoking. Of these three, high blood pressure is now recognised as the most potent predictor of life expectancy, a finding which life insurance companies have recognised for many years. Studies in Western populations have revealed that from 5% to 20% of the population may have high blood pressure, and of those over 95% have essential hypertension, which is to say that the reason for the high blood pressure is not understood. High blood pressure is usually defined, arbitrarily, as a diastolic pressure greater than 90 mmHg and a systolic pressure of greater than 140 mmHg. However, the increased risk of cardiovascular disease is not confined solely to those who have high blood pressure, but is related to the whole range of blood pressure; in other words those people with average blood pressure are at greater risk than those with lower pressures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Denton D (1982) The hunger for salt. An anthropological, physiological and medical analysis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

    Google Scholar 

  2. Oliver WJ, Cohen EL, Neel JV (1975) Blood pressure, sodium intake and sodium-related hormones in the Yanomamo Indians, a “no-salt culture”. Circulation 52:146–151

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Joossens JV (1980) Dietary salt restriction: the case in favour. The therapeutics of hypertension. Royal Society of Medicine, London, pp 243–250 (International congress and symposium series 26)

    Google Scholar 

  4. MacGregor GA (1985) Sodium is more important than calcium in essential hypertension. Hypertension 7:628–637

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Simpson FO (1984) Salt and hypertension: current data, attitudes and policies. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 6:S4–4S9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Kesteloot H, Park BC, Lee CS, Brems-Heyns E, Joossens JV (1980) A comparative study of blood pressure and sodium intake in Belgium and in Korea. In: Kesteloot H, Joossens JV (eds) Epidemiology of arterial blood pressure. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp 453–470

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  7. Yamori Y, Kihara M, Nara Y et al. (1981) Hypertension and diet: multiple regression analysis in a Japanese farming community. Lancet I:120

    Google Scholar 

  8. Mir MA, Mir F, Khosla T (1984) High incidence of hypertension in heavy salt consuming population of northern Kashmir. Circulation 70(suppl II):359 (abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Hofman A, Hazebroek A, Volkenburg HA (1983) A randomised trial of sodium intake and blood pressure in newborn infants. JAMA 250:370–373

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Rose G (1981) Strategy of prevention: lessons from cardiovascular disease. Br Med J 282:1847–1851

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Shaper AG, Leonard PJ, Jones KW, Jones M (1969) Environmental effects on the body build, blood pressure and blood chemistry of nomadic warriors serving in the army of Kenya. East Air Med J 46:282–289

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Poulter N, Khaw KT, Hopwood BEC, Mugambi M, Peart WS, Sever PS (1984) Salt and blood pressure in various populations. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 6:S197–197S203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Joossens JV, Geboers J (1983) Salt and hypertension. Prev Med 12:53–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. National nutritional survey (1981) Ministry of Health and Welfare, Koseisho, Japan

    Google Scholar 

  15. National survey on circulatory disorders (1980) Ministry of Health and Welfare, Koseisho, Japan

    Google Scholar 

  16. Joossens JV, Kesteloot H, Amery A (1979) Salt intake and mortality from stroke. N Engl J Med 300:1396

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Longmate N (1966) King cholera — the biography of a disease. Hamish Hamilton, London

    Google Scholar 

  18. Ball COT, Meneely GR (1957) Observations on dietary sodium chloride. J Am Diet Assoc 33:366–370

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Cherchovich GM, Capek K, Jefremova Z, Pohlova I, Jelinek J (1976) High salt intake and blood pressure in lower primates. J Appl Physiol 40:601–604

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Whitworth JA, Coghlan JP, Denton DA, Hardy K, Scoggins BA (1979) Effect of sodium loading and ACTH on blood pressure of sheep with reduced renal mass. Cardiovasc Res 13:9–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Grollman A, Grollman EF (1962) The teratogenic induction of hypertension. J Clin Invest 41:710–714

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Knudsen KD, Dahl LK (1966) Essential hypertension: inborn error of sodium metabolism. Postgrad Med J 42:148–152

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Dahl LK, Heine N, Leitl G, Tassinari L (1970) Hypertension and death from consumption of processed baby foods in rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 133:1405–1408

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Dahl LK, Knudsen KD, Iwai J (1969) Humoral transmission of hypertension: evidence from parabiosis. Circ Res 25:21–33

    Google Scholar 

  25. Dahl LK, Heine N (1975) Primary role of renal homographs in setting chronic blood pressure levels in rats. Circ Res 36:692–696

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Tobian L, Lange J, Azei S et al. (1978) Reduction of natriuretic capacity in renin release in isolated blood perfused kidneys of Dahl hypertension-prone rats. Circ Res 43(Suppl I):92–97

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Aoki K, Yamori Y, Ooshim A (1972) Effects of high or low sodium intake in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Jpn Circ J 36:539

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bianchi G, Fox U, Di Francesco GF, Giovanetti AM, Pagetti D (1974) Blood pressure changes by kidney cross-transplantation between spontaneously hypertensive rats and normotensive rats. Clin Sci Mol Med 47:435–438

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Kawabe K, Watanabe TX, Shiono K, Sokabe H (1979) Influence of blood pressure on renal isographs between spontaneously hypertensive and normotensive rats utilizing the F1 hybrids. Jpn Heart J 20:886–894

    Google Scholar 

  30. Haddy FJ (1980) Mechanism, prevention and therapy of sodium dependent hypertension. Am J Med 69:746–758

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Guidi C, Avanzi C, Bianchi G (1984) Familial factors in hypertension after renal transplantation (abstract). Proceedings of IXth international congress of nephrology, Los Angeles, California, 1984, p 209

    Google Scholar 

  32. Curtis JJ, Luke RG, Dustan HP et al. (1983) Remission of essential hypertension after renal transplantation. N Engl J Med 309:1009–1015

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Haddy FJ, Overbeck HW (1976) The role of humoral agents in volume expanded hypertension. Life Sci 19:935–948

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Blaustein MP (1977) Sodium ions, calcium ions, blood pressure regulation and hypertension: a reassessment and a hypothesis. Am J Physiol 232:C165–165C173

    Google Scholar 

  35. de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA (1980) Dahl’s hypothesis that a saluretic substance may be responsible for a sustained rise in arterial pressure: its possible role in essential hypertension. Kidney Int 18:1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. de Wardener HE, MacGregror GA (1983) The relation to a circulating transport inhibitor (the natriuretic hormone?) to hypertension. Medicine 62:310–326

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Hilton PJ (1986) Cellular sodium transport in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med 314:222–229

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Gray HH, Hilton PJ, Richardson PJ (1986) Effect of serum from patients with essential hypertension on sodium transport in normal leucocytes. Clin Sci 70:583–586

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Sagnella GA, Markandu ND, Shore AC, MacGregor GA (1986) Raised circulating levels of atrial natriuretic peptides in essential hypertension. Lancet 1:179–181

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Ambard L, Beaujard E (1904) Causes de l’hypertension arterielle. Arch Gen Med 1:520–533

    Google Scholar 

  41. Allen FM, Sherrill JW (1922) The treatment of arterial hypertension. J Metab Res 2:429–546

    Google Scholar 

  42. Kempner W (1948) Treatment of hypertensive vascular disease with rice diet. Am J Med 4:545–577

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Parijs J, Joossens JV, Van der Linden L, Verstreken G, Amery AKPC (1973) Moderate sodium restriction and diuretics in the treatment of hypertension. Am Heart J 85:22–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Morgan T, Adams W, Gillies A, Wilson M, Morgan G, Carney S (1978) Hypertension treated by salt restriction. Lancet I:227–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Best FE, et al. (1982) Double blind randomised crossover trial of moderate sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet I:351–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Beard TC, Cooke HM, Gray WR, Barge R (1982) Randomised controlled trial of a no-added sodium diet for mild hypertension. Lancet II:455–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Erwteman TM, Nagelkerke N, Lubsen J, Kouta M, Dunning AJ (1984) Beta-blockade, diuretics and salt restriction for the management of mild hypertension: a randomised double blind trial. Br Med J 289:406–409

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Singer DRJ, Cappuccio FP, Shore AC, Sagnella GA (1987) Moderate sodium restriction with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor in essential hypertension: a double blind study. Br Med J 294:531–534

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Watt GCM, Edwards C, Hart JT, Hart M, Walton P, Foy CJW (1983) Dietary sodium restriction for mild hypertension in general practice. Br Med J 286:432–436

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA (1985) Sodium restriction lowers high blood pressure through a decreased responsiveness of the renin system: direct evidence using saralasin. J Hypertens 3:243–247

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. De Courcy S, Mitchell H, Simmons D, MacGregor GA (1986) Urinary sodium excretion in 4–6 year old children: a cause for concern? Br Med J 292:1428–1429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Simpson FO (1982) Salt and hypertension. NZ Med J 95:420–421

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. MacGregor GA (1983) Dietary sodium and potassium intake and blood pressure. Lancet I:750–753

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Khaw K-T, Thorn S (1982) Randomised double-blind cross-over trial of potassium on blood pressure in normal subjects. Lancet II:1127–1129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. MacGregor GA, Smith SJ, Markandu ND et al. (1982) Moderate potassium supplementation in essential hypertension. Lancet II:567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Khaw K-T, Barrett-Connor E (1987) Dietary potassium and stroke-associated mortality. N Engl J Med 316:235–240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. McCarron DA, Morris ED, Henry HJ, Stanton JL (1984) Blood pressure and nutrient intake in the United States. Science 224:1392–1398

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Feinleib N, Lenfant C, Miller SA (1984) Hypertension and calcium. Science 226:384–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Grubbee DE, Hofman A (1986) Effect of calcium supplementation on diastolic blood pressure in young people with hypertension. Lancet II:703–706

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Beynon GW, Shore AC, Sampson B, MacGregor GA (1985) Lack of effect of oral magnesium on high blood pressure: a double blind study. Br Med J 291:235–238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Puska P, Iacono JM, Nissinen A et al. (1983) Controlled, randomised trial of the effect of dietary fat on blood pressure. Lancet I:1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Rouse IL, Beilin LJ, Armstrong Bk, Vandongen R (1983) Blood-pressure-lowering effect of a vegetarian diet: controlled trial in normotensive subjects. Lancet I:5–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Savdie E, Grosslight GM, Adena MA (1984) Relation of alcohol and cigarette consumption to blood pressure and serum creatinine levels. J Chron Dis 37:617–623

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Barrett-Connor E, Khaw K-T (1985) Is hypertension more benign when associated with obesity? Circulation 72:53–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Cambien F, Chretien JM, Ducimetiere P et al. (1985) Is the relationship between blood pressure and cardiovascular risk dependent on body mass index? Am J Epidemiol 122:434–442

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Elliot P, Shipley MJ, Rose G (1987) Are lean hypertensives at greater risk than obese hypertensives? J Hypertens 5(Suppl 5) S517–S519

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. G. A. MacGregor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK

    John Dobbing DSc, FRCP, FRCPath (Emeritus Professor of Child Growth and Development) (Emeritus Professor of Child Growth and Development)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1988 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

MacGregor, G.A. (1988). Salt and Blood Pressure. In: Dobbing, J. (eds) A Balanced Diet?. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1652-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1652-3_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-1654-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-1652-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation