International Legislative Initiatives to Combat Human Trafficking

Abstract

This paper examines how the trafficking issue has been addressed by various stakeholders, international organizations and governments, and how these various approaches of the problem may have actually influenced trafficking trends. However, various issues come into play in the process of legislative initiatives. Are these efforts addressing the problem in an effective way? Are other issues such as socio-political root causes that need to be taken into account? To address these questions, among others, we examine the different legislative approaches to trafficking and the proposed solutions that could contribute towards a new approach to this issue.

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Introduction

Human trafficking has become the third biggest criminal business worldwide, after drug trafficking and trafficking of weapons. It has become one of the most lucrative criminal enterprises, which has its own long established criminal industry connected with related activities such as money laundering, drug trafficking, document forgery, smuggling etc.¹

Changes that took place during the period from 1989 through 1991 in Eastern Europe at the social, political, and economic levels, led to the decline of the welfare state, and transitioning economies suffered from inflation and massive unemployment. The vast majority of the population in these countries was struggling to find a way to exit poverty.² Richer Western European Countries and Greece were among the first European Countries to experience a significant wave of immigration. This immigration flow immediately increased the number of people seeking hope in Europe, increasing the immigration pressure on EU countries, already a favorable destination for immigrants coming from poor countries of Africa and Asia.³ What is particularly important is the fact that almost every country, especially in the western world, is affected by trafficking, whether as a country of origin, transit, or destination for victims.⁴

Additionally, the establishment of the European Union, initially with the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 and later on with the Treaties of Amsterdam in 1996 and Nice in 2001, resulted in the abolition of border and customs controls within the EU area, thus rendering the free movement of people and goods⁵ much easier. However, this new reality in border controls facilitated the development of different forms of illegal activity across the EU area. Additionally, the Schengen Treaty,⁶ which was signed by almost all EU Member States⁷ and became an EU acquis created new challenges in the area of internal security. With the Schengen Agreement and its Supplemental Application Agreement⁸ an area of free movement of persons and goods was created by removing all intra-state control checks at EU States common borders.

Within this rapidly transformed international social and political environment, new forms of crime have emerged. Criminal networks, in Western Europe and elsewhere, including in developing countries, are particularly active in the trafficking of human beings; such trafficking includes labor exploitation and sexual exploitation of people coming from poor countries.⁹ The vast majority of trafficking victims are persons who are by definition vulnerable physically, socially, and economically, namely the minors¹⁰ and young women. As a result of these socio-economic changes around the world, trafficking in human beings has been transformed into a modern form of slavery and an epidemic with 27 million slaves around the world.¹¹

Human Trafficking vs. Migrant Smuggling

As we have already mentioned, each year hundreds of thousands of migrants are moved illegally by highly organized international smuggling and trafficking groups, often in dangerous or inhumane conditions. However, to cope with the pernicious problem of human trafficking, one should distinguish between this problem and the one of migrant smuggling.¹²

To begin with, one could define human smuggling as a business transaction between two willing parties involving movement across borders, usually by illegal means. It occurs with the consent of a person(s), and the transaction usually ends upon arrival at the country of destination. On the other hand, human trafficking starts when one party deprives another party of the freedom of choice by using threats, force, coercion, deception of fraud for the purpose of exploitation. That being said, human trafficking is a direct violation of basic human rights which can occur both across and within borders.¹³ Needless to say, the definition one would adopt would have a direct impact on anti-trafficking policies, as well as on the support of particular agendas.

A decisive factor in conceptualizing human trafficking is that its victims are commodities in a multibillion dollar global industry. Subsequently, criminal organizations are choosing to traffic human beings because, unlike other commodities, people can be used repeatedly and because trafficking requires little in terms of capital investment.

Different Forms of Human Trafficking

Human trafficking has assumed alarming dimensions over the last couple of decades, mainly because of the above-mentioned international, political, and social changes. Human trafficking is favored by organized crime¹⁴ due to its high profitability. Interestingly enough, individual criminals as well as criminal networks around the world that were previously involved in the illegal trade of arms and drugs¹⁵ have become active in human trafficking by exploiting modern means, such as the Internet,¹⁶ in order to facilitate trafficking and the subsequent exploitation of human beings.

We could briefly summarize the specific types of human trafficking in the following categories:

• a. Trafficking of immigrants with economic exploitation being the main reason for their transport. The perpetrators exploit the future-immigrants’ need to overcome transportation difficulties—posed by distance and prevention measures taken by host countries—thus undertaking or facilitating their transfer. However, immigrants are usually asked to pay huge sums of money in exchange for their transport to their desirable destination country. On the other hand, illegal immigration as a phenomenon that usually affects various aspects of the host country’s socio-economic status quo, poses an additional threat to the public order of the host country itself. That is, uncontrolled entry into the host country of people who may be involved in criminal activities in their country of origin could create an atmosphere of fear related to what is often referred to as “imported crime.”¹⁷

• b. The exploitation of immigrants while they are job hunting. Human trafficking criminal networks, after the smuggling of immigrants is completed, often continue to exploit them while they are looking for a job, providing them with the so-called protection or mediation. That is, human traffickers often take advantage of immigrants’ ignorance of the host country’s language, the local customs and habits, the legislation and so on and so forth and often demand an additional amount of money to offer their assistance so that immigrants could overcome these obstacles.

• c. The exploitation of the work of immigrants. In this case, the perpetrators employ and exploit immigrants’ labor themselves by offering lower salaries, keeping them without insurance or forcing them to work under inhumane and unsafe conditions.¹⁸ Members of these trafficking networks, using force, fraud, or coercion, manage to recruit, harbor, transport, obtain, or employ a person for labor or services in involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery. Victims can be found in domestic situations as nannies or maids, sweatshop factories, janitorial jobs, construction sites, farm work, restaurants, or even panhandling.¹⁹

• d. The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation. The perpetrators take advantage of the demand for sexual services in host countries and the labor supply of young women from poor countries. Sex trafficking usually takes place in a variety of public and private locations such as massage parlors, spas, strip clubs, and other fronts for prostitution.²⁰ Victims may start off dancing or stripping in clubs and are often coerced into more exploitative situations of prostitution and even pornography. Most of these women live in conditions of substantive slavery, literally incarcerated in houses, suffering food deprivation and subjected to systematic physical and psychological violence.

• e. Trafficking in human beings in order to facilitate trade in human organs. The global demand for human organs has set the stage for an exploding and poorly understood global business in human organs. The perpetrators take advantage of the increased global demand for human organs used for transplantation in violation of the relevant domestic and international laws and treaties. Victims of human trafficking, often living under inhumane conditions, identify themselves as members of socially excluded groups, and are prone to becoming victims of trafficking in human organs.²¹

• f. The trafficking of children for sexual exploitation. In this case, the perpetrators take advantage of the demand expressed by adults for sexual services by children

• g. Black market adoption is another form of human trafficking which emerged over the last decade fostered by the increasing demand from childless couples²² combined with the growing number of foreign orphans available, as a result of wars, failed states and devastating socio-economic changes.

The above mentioned categorization makes it clear that the crime of trafficking itself is directly related to the exploitation, either financial or sexual, of human beings. The absence of the element of exploitation leads to other types of crime.²³

International Legislative Instruments

The UN

There is a wide consensus that the role of transnational organized crime in the trafficking of people is growing.²⁴ As smuggling and trafficking-related activities take place in numerous countries, governments cannot successfully combat these offences in isolation. In addition, many countries lack specific provisions to deal adequately with these issues. For this reason, the international community has begun a concerted effort to thwart international criminal networks.

The first legislative efforts to address the international phenomenon of slavery had been undertaken by the League of Nations at the relevant convention on slavery.²⁵ (According to this Convention, the signatory states undertake the obligation, derived from Article 2, to prevent and suppress the trafficking of slaves (as defined in Article 1 paragraph 2 of the Convention thereof) and achieve the complete elimination of slavery (as defined in Article 1 paragraph 1 of this convention).²⁶

This ratification was considered necessary given that, in the meantime, the UN replaced the League of Nations. As a result, the legal instruments developed by the League of Nations with this Convention, were now under the auspices of the successor organization, the United Nations. The inhuman institution of slavery, which affects human freedom and the dignity of human nature alike, was eventually prohibited by a series of legislative texts adopted by the UN. Thus, article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights prohibits slavery, in whole or in part, and the conduct of the slave trade. Furthermore, with the Multilateral International Geneva Convention of 07.09.1956, which was also adopted under the UN auspices.²⁷ States sought to efficiently address the problem of slavery, after having attempted to abolish other aspects of slavery and slave trade.

The most recent and comprehensive effort to address the crime of trafficking, as it appears today, took place with the Protocol of the UN “for prevention, combating and punishing of trafficking in persons especially women and children,” signed on 12/12/2000 in Palermo,²⁸ including the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The Protocol is only applied to crimes with a transnational character, which are committed by a criminal network. Article 3 of the Protocol, which is particularly interesting when it comes to definitional issues, provides a clear and coherent definition of trafficking in human beings.

Human trafficking is defined²⁹ as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs”³⁰

International Labour Organization

The General Assembly of the International Labour Organisation signed the International Labour Convention No. 29 on 06.28.1930 (which was ratified by Greece with Law 2079/1952, Government Gazette A 108/13-6-1952). According to the Convention, each Contracting State was bound to the immediate abolition of forced labor for the benefit of employers, companies or private legal persons (Articles 4 and 5 of the Convention). Moreover, contracting states undertook the obligation to work for the gradual abolition of forced labor within the shortest possible time (Article 1). In Article 2 of the Convention, the concept of forced labor is defined and extensive and detailed arrangements for the transitional period following the gradual abolition of forced labor in favor of the State are provided.

One of the forms of human trafficking discussed earlier, namely child labor exploitation was partially addressed by International Labour Convention No. 182 of 06.17.1999,³¹ (According to this Convention, each Contracting State is obliged to prohibit and eliminate the worst forms of child labor (Article 1 of the Convention), namely forbid employing people under the age of 18 (Article 2 of the Convention)). A definition of forms of labor exploitation is included in Article 3 of the Convention: namely, slavery, serfdom, forced recruitment of children, jobs that endanger workers’ health, safety or moral integrity of children or the use of children in illegal activities, as well as their sexual exploitation.

The Council of Europe

The European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), (ratified by Greece with Law 53/1974, Government Gazette 256/20-9-1974) prohibits any kind of detention in conditions of slavery or servitude and any forced or compulsory labor (Article 4). The specific interest of the Council of Europe to combat the modern criminal human trafficking was expressed in a series of recommendations, such as R (2000) 11 related to the action against trafficking for sexual exploitation,³² R (2001) 16 related to the protection of children from sexual exploitation,³³ R (2002) 1545 related to the campaign against trafficking in women,³⁴ R (2003) 1610 related to immigration concerning the trafficking of women and prostitution,³⁵ (2003) R 1611 on trafficking in organs in Europe³⁶ and culminated with the adoption of the Convention of Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, signed in Warsaw on 05.16.2005.³⁷ The Convention’s objective is to establish a close cooperation among Member States of the Council of Europe in order to prevent and combat the phenomenon, while the convergence of national legislations would also be desirable. The Convention sets out in Article 4, the same definition of trafficking as that of Article 3 of Palermo Protocol and completes the regulation by including the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. However, it has extensive references to the victim of human trafficking, which is the natural person who suffers the acts of trafficking, as these are defined in the same article (see Article 4 of the Convention).

In the EU

Following the Maastricht Treaty and the creation of the EU, the process of harmonizing norms is a new reality in the field of criminal law. This convergence occurred primarily in order to serve the immediate needs of building a common, if possible, criminal policy of the EU towards certain forms of crime. This need emerged as an outcome of the contemporary socio-political environment of Europe, because of the effective abolition of border and customs controls and the regime changes in Eastern Europe following the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union. So, the territory of the EU gradually became not only the first stop, but the main and desirable destination of thousands of immigrants from Eastern Europe. These people, whose total number was added to the already large numbers of migrants from the developing countries (in Africa and Asia in particular) became part of the spread of human trafficking within the EU. Taking into account that human trafficking had all with the distinct characteristics of cross-border crime conducted by organized criminal networks, EU political bodies decided to adopt new rules applicable to all Member States in order to tackle the problem.

The general legal framework, which deals with forms of organized and cross-border crime at EU level, included the Joint Action 98/699/JHA on the identification, tracing, freezing, seizing, and confiscation of instrumentalities and proceeds of crime, the Joint Action 98/733/JHA on charges of involvement in criminal organization in EU Member States, the Joint Action 98/428/JHA establishing a European Judicial Network, the joint action 98/427 JHA on good practice in mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, which was also a series of specific legislative provisions related to the treatment against forms of trafficking. These legislative provisions also included:

• the Joint Action 96/700/JHA for a program of incentives and exchanges between those who are responsible for combating human trafficking and sexual exploitation of children, which would develop coordinated initiatives on combating human trafficking and sexual exploitation of children, child disappearances and the use of telecommunications for the purpose of trafficking, and sexual exploitation of children (Article 1),

• 7/154/JHA Joint Action on combating trafficking and sexual exploitation of children, which has already been repealed by Article 9 of No. 2002/629/JHA FD, and

• Joint Action 96/748/JHA on extending the mandate given to the Drugs Unit of Europol, with which the powers of Europol were expanded in relation to the exchange and analysis of data and information including crimes of trafficking, as long as two or more Member States are involved.³⁸ (proper citations for all these documents are needed)!

The convention for the establishment of Europol, which was ratified by Greece with Law 2605/1998 (Government Gazette A 88/22-4-1998), includes a definition of trafficking³⁹ that had been supplemented by Council Decision of 12/03/1998. This definition is broader than the corresponding definition in the Protocol of the UN, since there is no requirement of transport or facilitating entry of third country or committing an act of speculation⁴⁰ for committing the crime of trafficking. The only condition is the mere inclusion of “illegal person in power of others” which seems to be the necessary element. According to this definition, the concept of trafficking includes cases of trafficking in babies as well, since the trafficking of abandoned children is mentioned in the definition without the prerequisite of labor or sexual exploitation.

The top legislative initiatives at the EU level to combat trafficking in human beings are the Framework Decision No. 2002/629/JHA of 19.7.2002 on combating trafficking in human beings,⁴¹ the Framework Decision No. 2004/68 / JHA 12/22/2003 to combat sexual exploitation of children and child pornography,⁴² and the Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA of 28 November 2002 on strengthening the legal framework to prevent the facilitation of unauthorized entry, transit, and residence.⁴³ These legislative initiatives, complement the respective legislation of the first pillar through Directive 2002/90/EC of 28 November 2002, in which is defined the facilitation of unauthorized entry, transit, and residence.⁴⁴

In 2002/629/JHA Framework Decision of 19.7.2002 on combating human trafficking, the definition of trafficking includes only labor and sexual exploitation (Article 1), omitting the protection of cases of trafficking in baby organ removal. It establishes a single threshold for protection of childhood, considering as a child in need of special protection, any person under 18 (Article 1, paragraph 4). This means, for example, that the use of fraudulent or coercive means for the termination of employment or sexual exploitation is not necessary in cases where the victim is a minor (Article 1 § 3). In Article 3, paragraph 2, there is a provision on aggravating circumstances, in the following cases:

• the life of the victim or the victim was particularly vulnerable (for example a minor), the circumstances caused particularly serious harm to the victim or

• the act was carried out by a criminal networks.

In Articles 4 and 5 Member States undertake the obligation to establish criminal liability for people responsible for crimes of trafficking and criminal sanctions against them as well.

For children in particular, namely persons below 18 years of age (Article 1 A 2004/68/JHA FD)⁴⁵ and for the crimes of sexual exploitation a comprehensive and satisfactory legal framework is suggested. The sexual exploitation includes forcing a child into prostitution or pornography, sexual activity with a child by force or by offering money or by other benefits or by abusing a position of power, under Article 2 of No. 2004/68/JHA Framework Decision of 22.12.2003,⁴⁶ while the Article 3, refers to crimes of child pornography. Greek legislation has implemented these basic provisions in Articles, 348 A, 249, 350, 351 A of the Greek Penal Code.⁴⁷

In the first pillar of European Community and in accordance with Articles 61 and 63 paragraph 3 of Treaty of European Community (Title IV) Directive 2002/90/EC was adopted, which requires the application by the Member States of “appropriate sanctions” against those who intentionally assist a person or persons, who do not have the nationality of a Member State, to enter or transit the territory of a Member State in breach of the law of that State.

Following the decision of the ECJ 13/09/2005 Case C-176/2003⁴⁸ the “appropriate sanctions” may be penal in nature, in accordance with the relevant interpretation of the ECJ. (poorly written and confusing. It is better to eliminate) An additional element that leads to this conclusion is the obligation of Member States under Article 2 of Directive 2002/90/EC to take all necessary measures to implement the sanctions in Article 1 of Directive in case of inciting, abetting, and attempt. These “necessary measures,” can only be of penal nature since we are talking about incitement, complicity, and attempt.

Moreover, Article 1 of the Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA of the Council explicitly mentions the need for adoption of criminal sanctions against breaches of articles 1 and 2 of Directive 2002/90/EC by Member States, which indeed may apply to legal persons (Articles 3 and 4 of the Framework Decision). According to paragraph 2 of Article 1 of the Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA Member States can establish sub-sentences for those crimes, such as confiscation of the means of transport used to commit the crime, prohibiting the perpetrator from pursuing directly or through a third party the professional activity in which the offense was committed, and deportation.

In paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA a distinct form of crime is introduced and applied in cases when crimes defined in article 1 paragraph 1 and 2 Directive 2002/90/EC, are committed for financial gain, or as part of the function of a criminal organization as defined by the Joint Action 98/733/JHA.⁴⁹ In case such a crime is committed, the maximum term of imprisonment cannot be less than 8 years or, where it is necessary for the consistency in the national system of penalties (Article 1 paragraph 4 of the Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA of), the maximum term cannot be less than 6 years.

Initiatives in the Balkans Area

In the aftermath of four Yugoslav wars, ongoing efforts at reconstruction in Southeastern Europe have devoted relatively limited attention to dimensions of human security that enhance protections for the region’s most vulnerable populations in their daily lives. It is in this context that Southeastern Europe, and especially the Western Balkan region, has emerged as a nexus point in human trafficking.⁵⁰

To address the emerging problem of human trafficking, various initiatives took place in the Balkans area, originating both from State entities as well as from NGOs or private actors. Such an initiative was the one undertaken by the NGO CARE. The project, called “Combating Human Trafficking Initiative in B&H, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro” (2006–2008)⁵¹ was a regional, multicountry initiative to build the capacity of key NGOs and anti-trafficking networks to support the implementation of the national anti-trafficking strategies, particularly the components that focus on prevention, education, and awareness. The project supported the development of networks of NGOs in four countries in Southeastern Europe.⁵² The project aimed to strengthen the capacity of civil society organizations, specifically grassroots women’s rights advocacy organizations, in regionally and nationally coordinated actions to prevent human trafficking and gender-based violence (GBV).⁵³

As far as regional law-enforcement initiatives are concerned, during its existence, Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI)⁵⁴ supported specialized Task Forces combating trafficking in human beings and drugs, commercial fraud, and stolen cars. The SECI Illegal Human Beings Trafficking Task Force was established in May 2000 on the initiative of the Romanian Government and comprises the Regional Task Force and the Regional Coordinator. The regional structure was supported by the local structures. National Task Forces in all SECI countries are headed by National Coordinators (not yet appointed in some of the countries). The Task Force operated through liaison officers, from all participating countries, working out of the SECI Centre in Bucharest. The liaison officers were in permanent contact with their national authorities through their respective designated National Focal Points, which communicate directly with the National Coordinators and the National Trafficking in Human Beings Squads.⁵⁵ In September 2002, SECI organized one of the largest regional anti-trafficking actions, called Operation Mirage, which resulted in over 20.000 police raids in bars, hotels, nightclubs, and border points in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo; 293 traffickers were identified, several of whom were tried in Bosnia-Herzegovina, in Serbia, and in Kosovo.⁵⁶

Additionally, there are a number of international agencies working on the issue of human trafficking in the Balkan region. The most active include the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe (CoE), the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), International Labour Organisation (ILO), International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD), and the International Migration Policy Programme (IMP). Overall, these organizations are engaged in a number of activities to combat trafficking in human beings, including in the fields of law enforcement, public awareness, research, training and support for NGOs. However, an analysis of the role of these organizations is beyond the scope of this paper.

Conclusion

It is clear that combating human trafficking involves various aspects relating to victim protection, law enforcement, and prevention as well. Legislative efforts are just one of the factors that play a role in dealing with the problem itself.

However, the analysis of this approach highlights the need for a new definition of trafficking, both nationally and internationally. This definition will look at trafficking, as a phenomenon, from a sociological and criminological perspective. Apart from any legislative initiative or law amendment, substantial success in combating the phenomenon of trafficking can only be achieved by a comprehensive socio-political and ideological reconstruction that will focus on human beings themselves.

Which institution or international organization could spearhead the effort to curtail the human trafficking problem in Europe? Undoubtedly, the European Union must recognize that human trafficking is a serious human rights issue and should hold member states and prospective member states accountable for prevention initiatives in accordance with the Charter of Fundamental Rights.⁵⁷ The EU should insist that the prospective Western Balkan states improve their records on prosecution and punishment. This improvement should not only include legislative efforts but structural reforms as well; for example, closer and more effective cooperation between law-enforcement agencies. A good start towards this direction could be the strengthening of SECI.

Similarly, in a more proactive approach, the EU should support local initiatives to address the root causes of trafficking such as domestic violence and low economic opportunities, especially during times of economic turmoil and insecurity that could fuel the root causes of human trafficking.

That being said, before attempting to implement any proposed solutions, legislative amendments or other reforms one should never forget that the causes of trafficking are complex. While there are numerous contributing factors, including mass unemployment in many countries of origin, inequality, discrimination, and gender-based violence in our societies, the patriarchal structures in the countries of origin as well as destination; the demand side including the promotion of sex tourism in many countries of the world, and the attitudes of many of men, the primary root cause is poverty, most particularly among women.

Having said that, significant progress towards solving the problem of such exploitation can only be achieved if we commit ourselves towards changes and actions that aim to address the root causes of the problem. This would entail, cooperative actions at the international level combined with transnational initiatives to reduce unemployment and poverty and by strengthening, the role of women and the protective framework for minorities. In other words, we have no alternative but to engage with the root causes, no matter how complex, difficult and forbidding they may be. Anti-trafficking initiatives must offer sustainable options for escaping the cycle of poverty, abuse, and exploitation.

Last but not least, concerning the law-enforcement cooperation in the field of anti-trafficking of human beings, the following points should be borne in mind: firstly, coordinating the efforts of law-enforcement agencies has not been and is not an easy task.⁵⁸ Additionally, effective law enforcement at the international level is essential in combating trafficking of human beings, both at the level of prevention (through intelligence exchange) as well as that of suppression (through arrests, raids, and other operational tools). International partners, such as Interpol, Europol, and the World Customs Organization, as well as regional partners such as Europol and the SECI should actively participate in conferences, meetings, and specialized workshops, in order to advance the implementation of local, regional, and international legislation on human trafficking, as well as to build trust and share best practices.

It is widely accepted that cross-border cooperation between national and international law-enforcement agencies is necessary for an effective criminal justice response to trafficking.⁵⁹ Among others, such an approach could include carrying out joint anti-trafficking special campaigns or exercises aiming to increase communication, improve mutual trust, and establish mechanisms for frequent meetings among law-enforcement agencies. After all, what we have learned from various forms of crime (including forms of transnational crime such as human trafficking) is that ongoing police cooperation is vital: before, during, and after every unlawful activity.

To sum up, what is required in the fight against human trafficking is more and better disaggregated information, appropriate legislation, adequate law-enforcement response,(including close cooperation), the protection of victims of human trafficking, improved coordination among countries of origin, transit, and destination—and, last but not least, political will.