Abstract
In the mid 1970s, when positron emission tomography (PET) was developed as a technology for the noninvasive assessment of various biochemical processes in living humans,1–8 PET radiopharmaceuticals were synthesized manually in relatively low yields and with significant radiation exposure to the personnel.9 Moreover, cyclotron technology appropriate to satisfy the particular demands of this new imaging procedure was not fully developed.10 For widespread use of this technique in research and clinical care, an important technological development was necessary in the areas of cyclotrons, target bodies, and radiosynthesis modules for the production of positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals.10
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA, Ter-Pogossian MM. Application of annihilation coincidence detection to transaxial reconstruction. J Nucl Med. 1975; 16: 210–224.
Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA, Higgins CS, Ter-Pogossian MM. Design considerations for a positron emission transaxial tomography (PETT III). IEEE Nucl Sci. 1976;NS-23:516–522.
Hoffman EJ, Phelps ME, Mullani NA, Coble CS, Ter-Pogossian MM. Design and performance characteristics of a whole body positron transaxial tomography. J Nucl Med. 1976; 17: 493–502.
Phelps ME. Emission computed tomography. Semin Nucl Med. 1977; 7: 337–365.
Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Huang S-C, Kuhl DE. ECAT: A new computerized tomograph imaging system for positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals. J Nucl Med. 1978; 19: 635–647.
Phelps ME, Huang SC, Hoffman EJ, Selin C, Sokoloff L, Kuhl DE. Tomographic measurement of local cerebral glucose metabolic rate in humans with (F-18) 2–fluoro-2–deoxy-D-glucose: Validation of method. Ann Neurol. 1979; 6: 371–388.
Reivich M, Kuhl D, Wolf A, Greenberg J, Phelps M, Ido T, Casalla V, Fowler J, Hoffman E, Mavi A, Som P, Sokoloff L. The [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization in man. Circ Res. 1979; 44: 127–137.
Phelps ME. Positron computed tomography studies of cerebral glucose metabolism in man: Theory and application in nuclear medicine. Semin Nucl Med. 1981; 11: 32–49.
Proceedings of the Symposium on New Developments in Radiopharmaceuticals and Labeled Compounds. Vol. I and II. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria, 1973.
Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ. Role of cyclotrons and positron imaging in the future of nuclear medicine. In: Serafini AN, Beaver JE, eds. Medical Cyclotrons in Nuclear Medicine. Progress in Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 4. Basel: S. Karger; 1978: 165–183.
Tilyou SM. Yesterday, today and tomorrow-The evolution of positron emission tomography. J Nucl Med. 1991; 32: 15N - 26N.
Livingston MS. High-energy Accelerators. New York: Interscience Publishers, Inc.; 1954.
Evans RD. The Atomic Nucleus. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.; 1955.
Livingston MS. Particle Accelerators: A Brief History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1969.
Livingston MS, Blewett JP. Particle Accelerators. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Cornpany, Inc.; 1962.
Livingood JJ. Principles of Cyclic Particle Accelerators. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.; 1961.
Persico E, Ferrari E, Segre SE. Principles of Particle Accelerators. New York: W.A. Benjamin, Inc.; 1968.
Kolomensky AA, Lebedev AN. Theory of Cyclic Accelerators. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company; 1966.
Kollath R, ed. Particle Accelerators. London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd.; 1967.
Scharf W. Particle Accelerators and Their Uses. Part I. Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers; 1986.
Humphries S Jr. Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration. New York: John Wiley liu Sons; 1986.
Conte M, Mackay WW. An Introduction to the Physics of Particle Accelerators. Singapore: World Scientific; 1991.
Wolf AP, Jones WB. Cyclotrons for biomedical radioisotope production. Radiochim Acta. 1983; 34: 1–7.
Comar D, Crouzel C. Biomedical cyclotrons for radioisotope production. Nucl Med Biol. 1986; 13: 101–107.
Hoop B Jr, Laughlin JS, Tilbury RS. Cyclotrons in nuclear medicine. In: Hine GJ, Sorensen JA, eds. Instrumentation in Nuclear Medicine. Part 2. New York: Academic Press; 1974: 407–457.
Wolf AP, Schlyer DJ. Accelerators for positron emission tomography. In: Burns HD, Gibson RE, Dannals RF, Siegel PKS, eds. Nuclear Imaging in Drug Discovery, Development, and Approval. Boston: Birkhauser; 1993: 33–54.
Fowler JS, Wolf AP. Positron emitter-labeled compounds: Priorities and problems. In: Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC, Schelbert HR, eds. Positron Emission Tomography and Autoradiography: Principles and Applications for the Brain and Heart. New York: Raven Press; 1986: 391–450.
Glasstone S. Source Book on Atomic Energy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; 1967.
White HE. Introduction to College Physics. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; 1969.
Paul AC. Variable Energy Extraction from a Negative Ion Cyclotron and Related Measurements. Ph.D. Dissertation; University of California, Los Angeles; 1967.
Paul AC, Wright BT. Variable energy extraction from negative ion cyclotrons. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci. 1966;NS-13:74–83.
Richardson JR, Wright BT. The UCLA SF cyclotron; Progress and status, January 1966. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1966;NS-13:495–499.
Lofgren EJ. Negative ions and charge neutralization in the cyclotron. Rev Sci Instr. 1951; 22: 321–323.
Judd DL. Electric dissociation of negative hydrogen ions in cyclotrons and synchrocyclotrons. Nucl Instr Meth. 1962;18,19:70–73.
Forrester AT. Large Ion Beams. Fundamentals of Generation and Propagation. New York: Wiley-Interscience Publication; 1988.
Weast RC, ed. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 61st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.; 1980.
MacDonald NS. The UCLA biomedical cyclotron facility. In: Serafini AN, Beaver JE, eds. Medical Cyclotrons in Nuclear Medicine. Progress in Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 4. Basel: S. Karger; 1978; 23–27.
Ter-Pogossian MM, Wagner HN Jr. A new look at the cyclotron for making short-lived isotopes. Semin Nucl Med. 1998; 28: 202–212.
Wagner HN Jr. A brief history of positron emission tomography (PET). Semin Nucl Med. 1998; 28: 213–220
Friesel DL, Smith W. Medical applications at the Indiana University cyclotron facility. In: Serafini AN, Beaver JE, eds. Medical Cyclotrons in Nuclear Medicine. Progress in Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 4. Basel: S. Karger; 1978; 63–71.
Robinson GD Jr. Cyclotron-related radiopharmaceutical development program at UCLA. In: Serafini AN, Beaver JE, eds. Medical Cyclotrons in Nuclear Medicine. Progress in Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 4. Basel: S. Karger; 1978; 80–92.
Sodd VJ. The cyclotron: Past, present, and future role in nuclear medicine. In: Freeman LM, Weissman HS, eds. Nuclear Medicine Annual 1982. New York: Raven Press; 1982; 291–317.
Ehrenkaufer R, Erdman K. Accelerators. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 23–25.
Shefer RE, Klinkowstein RE, Hughey BJ, Welch MJ. Production of PET radionuclides with a high current electrostatic accelerator. In: Weinreich R, ed. Proceedings of the IVth International Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Villigen: Paul Scherrer Institut; 1992; 4–10.
Wangler TP, Cimabue AG, Merson J, Mills RS, Wood RL, Young LM. Superconducting RFQ linear accelerator. Nucl Instr Meth. 1993; B79: 718–720.
Krohn KA, Link JM, Young P, Hagan WK, Pasquinelli R, Chrisman B, Bida GT. 3He RFQ for PET isotope production. A brief progress report, August 1995. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 38–39.
Robinson GD Jr. Status of AccSys Technology’s PULSAR“ System. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 34–36.
Swenson DA. Compact proton linac systems for medical and industrial applications. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 42–44.
Webster W. NHVG: A compact direct current accelerator. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 28–30.
Roberts AD, Nickles RJ, Davidson RJ. The UW Pelletron lab: PET radioisotope production with the NEC 9SDH tandem accelerator. In: Zeisler S, Helus F, eds. Proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Heidelberg: German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); 1997; 42–43.
Friedlander A, Kennedy JW, Macias ES, Miller JM. Nuclear and Radiochemistry. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley liu Sons; 1981.
Browne E, Firestone RB. Table of Radioactive Isotopes. New York: John Wiley liu Sons; 1986.
Keller KA, Lange J, Munzel H. Landolt-Bornstein Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology. Group I: Nuclear and Particle Physics. Vol. 5: Q-values and Excitation Functions of Nuclear Reactions. Part C: Estimation of Unknown Excitation Functions and Thick Target Yields for p, d, ’He and cr Reactions. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1974.
Helus F, Wolber G. Activation techniques. In: Helus F, Colombetti LG, eds. Radionuclides Production. Vol. I. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.; 1983; 57–120.
Wieland BW, Highfill RR. Proton accelerator targets for the production of“C, 73N, 150, and 18F. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci. 1979; N5–26: 1713–1717.
Qaim SM. Nuclear data relevant to cyclotron produced short-lived medical radioisotopes. Radiochim Acta. 1982; 30: 147–162.
Williamson C, Boujot J, Picard J. Range-energy tables for charged particles. Centre D’Etudes Nucléaires de Saclay, Report No. CES-R3042; 1966.
Janni JF. Calculations of energy loss, range, path length, straggling, multiple scattering, and the probability of inelastic nuclear collisions for 0.1 to 1000–MeV protons. Technical Report No. AFWL-TR-65–150. Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico; 1966.
Gandarias-Cruz D, Okamoto K. Status on the compilation of nuclear data for medical radioisotopes produced by accelerators. IAEA Nuclear Data Section. Vienna; 1988.
Vaalburg W, Paans AMJ. Short-lived positron emitting radionuclides. In: Helus F, Colombetti LG, eds. Radionuclides Production. Vol. II. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.; 1983; 47–101.
Nozaki T. Other cyclotron radionuclides. In: Helus F, Colombetti LG, eds. Radionuclides Production. Vol. II. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.; 1983; 103–124.
Clark JC, Buckingham PD. Short-lived Radioactive Gases for Clinical Use. London: Butterworths; 1975.
Wieland BW, Schmidt DG, Bida GT, Ruth TJ, Hendry GO. Efficient and economical production of oxygen-15 labeled tracers with low energy protons. J Label Compd Radiopharm. 1986; 23: 1214–1216.
Wieland BW, Hendry GO, Schmidt DG. Design and performance of targets for producing 11C ‘3N 150 and 18F with 11 MeV protons. JLabel Compd Radiopharm. 1986; 23: 1187–1189.
Wieland BW, Hendry GO, Schmidt DG, Bida GT, Ruth TJ. Efficient small volume 180 water target for producing 18F-fluoride with low energy protons. J Label Compd Radiopharm. 1986; 23: 1205–1207.
Qaim SM, Clark JC, Crouzel C, Guillaume M, Helmeke HJ, Nebeling B, Pike VW, Stock-lin G. PET radionuclide production. In: Stocklin G, Pike VW, eds. Radiopharmaceuticals for Positron Emission Tomography. Methodological Aspects. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1993; 1–42.
Alvord CW, Zigler SS. Target systems for the RDS-111 cyclotron. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 155–161.
Schlyer DJ, Bastos MAV, Alexoff D, Wolf AP. Separation of [18F]fluoride from [18O]water using anion exchange resin. Appl Radiat Isot. 1990; 41: 531–533.
Nickles RJ, Daube ME, Ruth TJ. An 180 target for the production of [18F]F2. Int JAppl Radiat Isot. 1984; 35: 117–122.
Goodman MM. Automated synthesis of radiotracers for PET applications. In: Hubner KL, Collmann J, Buonocore E, Kabalka G, eds. Clinical Positron Emission Tomography. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book; 1992; 110–122.
Tilbery RS, Gelbard AS. 11C 13N, and 150 tracers. In: Rayudu GVS, ed. Radiotracers for Medical Applications. Vol. I. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.; 1983; 275–291.
Clark JC. Production and application of oxygen-15; Radiopharmacy aspects. In: Schubiger PA, Westera G, eds. Progress in Radiopharmacy. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1992; 91–107.
Wieland B, Bida G, Padgett H, Hendry G, Zippi E, Kabalka G, Morelle J-L, Verbruggen R, Ghyoot M. In-target production of [13N]ammonia via proton irradiation of dilute aqueous ethanol and acetic acid mixtures. Appl Radiat Isot. 1991; 42: 1095–1098.
Baumgartner FJ, Barrio JR, Henze E, Schelbert HR, MacDonald NS, Phelps ME, Kuhl DE. 13N Labeled L-amino acids for in vivo quantitative assesment of local myocardial metabolism. J Med Chem. 1981; 24: 764–766.
Henze E, Schelbert HR, Barrio JR, Egbert JE, Hansen HW, MacDonald NS, Phelps ME. Evaluation of myocardial metabolism with N-13 and C-11 labeled amino acids for positron computed tomography. J Nucl Med. 1982; 23: 671–681.
Langstrom B, Dannals RF. Carbon-I1 compounds. In: Wagner HN Jr, Szabo Z, Buchanan JW, eds. Principles of Nuclear Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 1995; 166–178.
Larsen P, Ulin J, Dahlstrom K, Jensen M. Synthesis of [11C]iodomethana by iodination of [11C] methane. Appl Radiat Isot. 1997; 48: 153–157.
Link JM, Krohn KA, Clark JC. Production of [11C]CH3I by single pass reaction of [I1C]CH4 with I2. Nucl Med Biol. 1997; 24: 93–97.
Jewett DM. A simple synthesis of [11C]methyl triflate. Appl Radiat Isot. 1992; 43: 1383 1385.
O’Hagan D, Rzepa HS. Some influences of fluorine in bioorganic chemistry. Chem Commun. 1997; 645–652.
Welch JT, Eswarakrishnan S. Fluorine in Bioorganic Chemistry. New York: John Wiley liu Sons; 1991.
Zielinski M, Kanska M. Syntheses and uses of isotopically labelled organic halides. In: Patai S, Rappoport Z, eds. The Chemistry of Halides, Pseudo-halides and Azides. Supplement D2. Part 1. Chichester: John Wiley liu Sons; 1995; 403–533.
Ido T, Wan C-N, Casella V, Fowler JS, Wolf AP, Reivich M, Kuhl DE. Labeled 2–deoxyD-glucose analogs. 18F-Labeled 2–deoxy-2–fluoro-D-glucose, 2–deoxy-2–fluoro-D-mannose and 14C-2–deoxy-2–fluoro-D-glucose. J Label Compd Radiopharm. 1978; 14: 175–183.
Bishop A, Satyamurthy N, Bida G, Hendry G, Phelps M, Barrio JR. Proton irradiation of [180]02: Production of [18F]F2 and [18F]F2 + [18F]OF2. Nucl Med Biol. 1996; 23: 189199.
Fowler JS, Wolf AP. The Synthesis of Carbon-11, Fluorine-18 and Nitrogen-13 Labeled Radiotracers for Biomedical Applications. Publication: NAS-NS-3201. Virginia: National Technical Information Service; 1982.
Satyamurthy N, Bida GT, Phelps ME, Barrio JR. N-[18F]Fluoro-N-alkylsulfonamides. Novel reagents for mild and regioselective radiofluorination. Appl Radiat Inst. 1990; 41: 733–738.
Stocklin G. Fluorine-18 compounds. In: Wagner HN Jr, Szabo Z, Buchanan JW, eds. Principles of Nuclear Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 1995;178194.
Namavari M, Barrio JR, Toyokuni T, Gambhir SS, Cherry SR, Herschman HR, Phelps ME, Satyamurthy N. Synthesis of 8–[18F]fluoroguanine derivatives: In vivo probes for imaging gene expression with positron emission tomography. Nucl Med Biol. 2000; 27: 157–162.
Kilbourn MR. Fluorine-18 Labeling of Radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear Science Series NASNS-3203. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press; 1990.
Hamacher K, Coenen HH, Stocklin G. Efficient stereospecific synthesis of no-carrieradded 2–[18F]-fluoro-2–deoxy-D-glucose using aminopolyether supported nucleophilic substitution. J Nucl Med. 1986; 27: 235–238.
Alauddin MM, Conti P. Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of 9–(4–[18F]fluoro-3–hydroxymethylbutyl)guanine([18F]FHBG): A new potential imaging agent for viral infection and gene therapy using PET. Nucl Med Biol. 1998; 25: 175–180.
Grierson JR, Shields AF. Radiosynthesis of 3’-deoxy-3’-[18F]fluorothymidine: [18F]FLT for imaging of cellular proliferation in vivo. Nucl Med Biol. 2000; 27: 143–156.
De Grado TR, Coleman RE, Wang S, Baldwin SW, Orr MD, Robertson CN, Polascik TJ, Price DT. Synthesis and evaluation of 18F-labeled choline as an oncologic tracer for positron emission tomography: Intial findings in prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 2000; 61: 110–117.
Coleman RE. Clinical PET: A technology on the brink. J Nucl Med. 1993; 34: 2269–2271.
Deutsch E. Clinical PET: Its time has come? J Nucl Med. 1993; 34: 1132–1133.
Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997. Public Law 105–115–Nov. 21, 1997.
Crouzel C, Clark JC, Brihaye C, Langstrom B, Lemaire C, Meyer GJ, Nebeling B, StoneElander S. Radiochemistry automation for PET. In: Stocklin G, Pike VW, eds. Radio-pharmaceuticals for Positron Emission Tomography. Methodological Aspects. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1993; 45–79.
Foust AS, Wenzel LA, Clump CW, Maus L, Andersen LB. Principles of Unit Operations. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley liu Sons; 1980.
McCabe WL, Smith JC, Harriott P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.; 1993.
Hayashi N, Sugawara T, Shintani M, Kato S. Computer-assisted automatic synthesis II. Development of a fully automated apparatus for preparing substituted N- (carboxyalkyl) amino acids. JAutomatic Chem. 1989; 11: 212–220.
Hayashi N, Sugawara T, Kato S. Computer-assisted automatic synthesis III. Synthesis of substituted N- (carboxyalkyl) amino acid tert-butyl estser derivatives. JAutomatic Chem. 1991; 13: 187–197.
Sugawara T, Kato S, Okamoto S. Development of fully-automated synthesis systems. JAutomatic Chem. 1994; 16: 33–42.
Frisbee AR, Nantz MH, Kramer GW, Fuchs PL. Robotic orchestration of organic reactions: Yield optimization via an automated system with operator-specified reaction sequences. JAm Chem Soc. 1984; 106: 7143–7145.
Merrifield RB, Stewart JM, Jernberg N. Instrument for automated synthesis of peptides. Anal Chem. 1966; 38: 1905–1914.
Erickson BW, Lukas TJ, Prystowsky MB. Automated solid-phase peptide synthesis. In: Beers RF. Jr, Bassett EG, eds. Polypeptide Hormones New York: Raven Press; 1980;121134.
Hewick RM, Hunkapiller MW, Hood LE, Dreyer WJ. A gas-liquid solid phase peptide and protein sequenator. J Biol Chem. 1981; 256: 7990–7997.
Efcavitch JW. Automated system for the optimized chemical synthesis of oligodeoxyribonucleotides. In: Schlesinger DH, ed. Macromolecular Sequencing and Synthesis. Selected Methods and Applications. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1988; 221–234.
Meldrum D. Automation for genomics, part one: Preparation for sequencing. Genome Res. 2000; 10: 1081–1092.
Plummer GF, Waterworth G, Roberts W. Six years of robots. JAutomatic Chem. 1991; 13: 29–37.
Weinstein DB, France DS. Jumping into the 20th century before it is too late: Is laboratory robotics still in its infancy? J Automatic Chem. 1992; 14: 59–63.
McGonagle EJ. Practical aspects of laboratory automation in pharmaceutical development. J Automatic Chem. 1993; 15: 3–8.
Rulon PW. Selection criteria for laboratory robotic application personnel. J Automatic Chem. 1992; 14: 51–53.
Hutchins B. Robotic applications: lessons on what constitutes success. JAutomatic Chem. 1991; 13: 9–12.
Barrio JR, MacDonald NS, Robinson GD Jr, Najafi A, Cook JS, Kuhl DE. Remote, semi-automated production of 18F-labeled 2–deoxy-2–fluoro-D-glucose. J Nucl Med. 1981; 22: 372–375.
Padgett HC, Barrio JR, MacDonald NS, Phelps ME. The unit operations approach applied to the synthesis of [1–11C]2–deoxy-D-glucose for routine clinical operations. JNucl Med. 1982; 23: 739–744.
Padgett HC, Robinson GD, Barrio JR. [1–11C]Palmitic acid: Improved radiopharmaceutical preparation. Int J Appl Radiat Isot. 1982; 33: 1471–1472.
Barrio JR, Keen RE, Ropchan JR, MacDonald NS, Baumgartner FJ, Padgett HC, Phelps ME. L-[1–11C]Leucine: Routine synthesis by enzymatic resolution. JNucl Med. 1983; 24: 515–521.
Ropchan JR, Ricci A, Low G, Phelps ME, Barrio JR. An automated high pressure vessel for routine preparation of short-lived radiopharmaceuticals. Appl Radiat Isot. 1986; 37: 1063–1068.
Luxen A, Perlmutter M, Bida GT, Van Moffaert G, Cook JS, Satyamurthy N, Phelps ME, Barrio JR. Remote semiautomated production of 6–[18F]fluoro-L-dopa for human studies with PET. Appl Radiat Isot. 1990; 41: 275–281.
Satyamurthy N, Namavari M, Barrio JR. Making 18F radiotracers for medical research. Chemtech 1994; 24: 25–32.
Barrio JR, Bida G, Satyamurthy N, Padgett HC, MacDonald NS, Phelps ME. A minicyclotron-based technology for the production of positron-emitting labeled radiopharmaceuticals. In: Greitz T, Ingvar DH, Widen L, eds. The Metabolism of the Human Brain Studied with Positron Emission Tomography. New York: Raven Press; 1985; 113–121.
Padgett HC, Schmidt DG, Luxen A, Bida GT, Satyamurthy N, Barrio JR. Computer-controlled radiochemical synthesis: A chemistry process control unit for the automated production of radiochemicals. Appl Radiat Isot. 1989; 40: 433–445.
Morelle J-L. Coincidence technologies. Liege, Belgium. Private communication.
PET Trace Synthesizer Modules and PET Laboratory Equipment. Product information. Nuclear Interface, Munster, Germany.
Zhang ZY, Kabalka GW, Longford CPD, Padgett HC, Zigler SS. Automated production of 6—[18F]fluoro-L-dopa in a commercially available chemistry module. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 305–306.
Dessy R. Robots in the laboratory: Part I. Anal Chem. 1983; 55: 1100A - 1114A.
Dessy R. Robots in the laboratory: Part II. Anal Chem. 1983; 55: 1232A - 1242A.
Mackay DG, Steel CJ, Poole K, McKnight S, Schmitz F, Ghyoot M, Vebruggen R, Vamecq F, Jongen Y. Quality assurance for PET gas production using the cyclone 3D oxygen-15 generator. Appl Radiat Isot. 1999; 51: 403–409.
de Vries EFJ, Luurtsema G, Brussermann M, Elsinga PH, Vaalburg W. Fully automated synthesis module for the high yield one-pot preparation of 6– [18F] fluoro-L-DOPA. Appl Radiat Isot. 1999; 51: 389–394.
Silberstein EB, Pharmacopeia Committee of the Society of Nuclear Medicine. Prevalence of adverse reactions to positron emitting radiopharmaceuticals in nuclear medicine. J Nucl Med. 1998; 39: 2190–2192.
Terrett NK. Combinatorial Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1998.
McCarthy DW, Shefer RE, Klinkowstein RE, Bass LA, Margeneau WH, Cutler CS, Anderson CJ, Welch MJ. Efficient production of high specific activity “Cu using a biomedical cyclotron. Nucl Med Biol. 1997; 24: 35–43.
Vaidyanathan G, Wieland BW, Larsen RH, Zweit, J, Zalutsky MR. High-yield production of iodine-124 using the 125Te (p, 2n) 1241 reaction. In: Link JM, Ruth TJ, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry. Vancouver: TRIUMF; 1995; 87–88.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Satyamurthy, N. (2004). Electronic Generators. In: PET. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-22529-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-22529-6_3
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-2332-5
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-22529-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive