Abstract
Various low-dimensional perceptual maps of fragrances have been proposed in the literature, as well as sensory maps for the odor descriptors most frequently applied in perfumery. To reach a consensus, however, seems difficult, if at all possible. In the present study, we applied principal components analysis to two databases. The first contains numeric odor profiles of 309 compounds based on 30 descriptors. The loading plot corresponding to the relevant components was strikingly similar to the odor effects diagram proposed by P. Jellinek (1951), primarily on the basis of his long experience as a perfumer. We obtained similar results in our analysis of the second database, which comprises 66 descriptors and contains the semantic descriptions of 119 perfume materials. On the basis of the results of both analyses, a commercial map of fragrances is discussed. Our findings suggest that it is possible to develop standard sensory maps of perfumery odor descriptors, if a consensus is first reached regarding which odorants best represent particular odor qualities.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Abe, H., Kanaya, S., Komukai, T., Takahashi, Y., & Sasaki, S. (1990). Systematization of semantic descriptions of odors. Analytica Chimica Acta, 239, 73–85. doi:10.1016/S0003-2670(00)83837-4
Aftel, M. (2001). Essence and alchemy: A book of perfume. New York: North Point Press.
Aftelier (2006). Natural perfume wheel. Berkeley, CA: Aftelier Perfumes Inc.
Arctander, S. (1969). Perfume and flavor chemicals (aroma chemicals). Montclair, NJ: Author.
BACIS (2001). Database of perfumery materials and performance (PMP-2001). Huizen, The Netherlands: BACIS.
Bain, A. (1855). The senses and the intellect. London: Parker. Billot, M. (1948). Classification des odeurs. Industries de la Parfumerie, 3, 87–92.
Blumenthal, P. (1979). Geruchsbezeichnungen in der französischen werbesprache. Vox Romanica, 38, 155–173.
Boelens, H., & Haring, H. G. (1981). Molecular structure and olfactive quality [Internal report]. Bussum, The Netherlands: Naarden International.
Brechbill, G. O. (2007). Classifying aroma chemicals. Creative Endeavor Books. Available at www.perfumerbook.com.
Brud, W. S. (1986). Words versus odors: How perfumers communicate. Perfumer & Flavorist, 11, 27–44.
Burdock, G. A. (Ed.) (2004). Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients (5th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Calkin, R. R., & Jellinek, J. S. (1994). Perfumery: Practice and principles (1st ed.). New York: Wiley.
Callegari, P., Rouault, J., & Laffort, P. (1997). Olfactory quality: From descriptor profiles to similarities. Chemical Senses, 22, 1–8. doi:10.1093/chemse/22.1.1
Chastrette, M. (1998). Data management in olfaction studies. SAR & QSAR in Environmental Research, 8, 157–181. doi:10.1080/10629369808039139
Chastrette, M., de Saint Laumer, J.-Y., & Sauvegrain, P. (1991). Analysis of a system of description of odors by means of four different multivariate statistical methods. Chemical Senses, 16, 81–93. doi:10.1093/chemse/16.1.81
Chastrette, M., Elmouaffek, A., & Sauvegrain, P. (1988). A multidimensional statistical study of similarities between 74 notes used in perfumery. Chemical Senses, 13, 295–305. doi:10.1093/ chemse/13.2.295
Coxon, J. M., Gregson, R. A. M., & Paddick, R. G. (1978). Multidimensional scaling of perceived odour of bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, 1,7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptane and cyclohexane derivatives. Chemical Senses & Flavor, 3, 431–441. doi:10.1093/chemse/3.4.431
Davis, R. G. (1979). Olfactory perceptual space models compared by quantitative methods. Chemical Senses, 4, 21–33. doi:10.1093/ chemse/4.1.21
Dravnieks, A. (1985). Atlas of odor character profiles, data series DS 61. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials.
Edwards, M. (2006). Fragrances of the world: Parfums du monde 2006 (22nd ed.). La Quinta, CA: Crescent House.
Edwards, M. (2008). Fragrances of the world: Parfums du monde 2008 (24th ed.). Sydney: Fragrances of the World.
Ennis, D. M., Boelens, H., Haring, H., & Bowman, P. (1982). Multivariate analysis in sensory evaluation. Food Technology, 36, 83–90.
Glöss, W. (Ed.) (1991). H&R fragrance guide: Feminine notes, masculine notes (2nd ed.). Hamburg: Glöss Verlag.
Green, M. (1999). Natural perfumes: Simple aromatherapy recipes. Loveland, CO: Interweave Press.
Harder, U. (1979). Der H&R duftkreis. Haarman & Reimer Contact, 23, 18–27.
Harper, R. (1975). Some chemicals representing particular odour qualities. Chemical Senses & Flavor, 1, 353–357. doi:10.1093/ chemse/1.3.353
Higuchi, T., Shoji, K., & Hatayama, T. (2004). Multidimensional scaling of fragrances: A comparison between the verbal and non-verbal methods of classifying fragrances. Japanese Psychological Research, 46, 10–19. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5884.2004.00232.x
Hummel, T., & Livermore, A. (2002). Intranasal chemosensory function of the trigeminal nerve and aspects of its relation to olfaction. International Archives of Occupational & Environmental Health, 75, 305–313. doi:10.1007/s00420-002-0315-7
International Organization for Standardization (2006). Sensory analysis—Methodology—Initiation and training of assessors in the detection and recognition of odors (ISO 5496). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.
Jaubert, J. N., Tapiero, C., & Doré, J. C. (1995). The field of odors: Toward a universal language for odor relationships. Perfumer & Flavorist, 20, 1–16.
Jellinek, J. S. (1980). Fragrance character—The consumer’s viewpoint. Dragoco Report, 27, 19–24.
Jellinek, J. S. (1990). A consumer oriented classification of perfumes. Dragoco Report, 37, 16–29.
Jellinek, J. S. (1992). Perfume classification: A new approach. In S. Van Toller & G. H. Dodd (Eds.), Fragrance: The psychology and biology of perfume (pp. 229–242). London: Chapman & Hall.
Jellinek, J. S. (1994). Aroma-chology: A status review. Perfumer & Flavorist, 19, 25–49.
Jellinek, J. S. (1997). The psychological basis of perfumery: A reevaluation. In J. S. Jellinek (Ed.), The psychological basis of perfumery (4th ed., pp. 240–256). London: Chapman & Hall.
Jellinek, J. S., du Bosque, B. O., Gschwind, J., Schubert, B., & Scharf, A. (1992). The scent and the marketing mix. Dragoco Report, 39, 103–121.
Jellinek, P. (1951). Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Parfümerie. Heidelberg: Alfred Hüthig Verlag.
Jellinek, P. (1997). The psychological basis of perfumery. In J. S. Jellinek (Ed.), The psychological basis of perfumery (4th ed., pp. 1–162). London: Chapman & Hall.
Jeltema, M. A., & Southwick, E. W. (1986). Evaluation and applications of odor profiling. Journal of Sensory Studies, 1, 123–136. doi:10.1111/j.1745-459X.1986.tb00165.x
Jennings-White, C. (1984). Human primary odors. Perfumer & Flavorist, 9, 46–58.
Kirk-Smith, M. D., & Booth, D. A. (1987). Chemoreception in human behaviour: Experimental analysis of the social effects of fragrances. Chemical Senses, 12, 159–166. doi:10.1093/chemse/12.1.159
Klein, S. (1947). Primary odor element classification. American Perfumer & Essential Oil Review, 50, 453–454.
Lawless, H. T. (1997). Olfactory psychophysics. In G. K. Beauchamp & L. Bartoshuk (Eds.), Tasting and smelling (pp. 125–174). San Diego: Academic Press.
Madany-Mamlouk, A., Chee-Ruiter, C., Hofmann, U. G., & Bower, J. M. (2003). Quantifying olfactory perception: Mapping olfactory perception space by using multidimensional scaling and self-organizing maps. Neurocomputing, 52–54, 591–597. doi:10.1016/ S0925-2312(02)00805-6
Menashe, I., Aloni, R., & Lancet, D. (2006). A probabilistic classifier for olfactory receptor pseudogenes. BMC Bioinformatics, 7, 393. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-7-393
Moran, J. (2000). Fabulous fragrances II: A guide to prestige perfumes for women and men. La Quinta, CA: Crescent House Publishing.
Müller, J. (1992). The H&R book of perfume: Understanding fragrance; origins, history, development; guide to fragrance ingredients. Hamburg: Glöss Verlag.
Nute, G. R., Macfie, H. J. H., & Greenhoff, K. (1988). Practical application of preference mapping. In D. M. H. Thomson (Ed.), Food acceptability (pp. 377–386). London: Elsevier.
Palen, J. (1983). The Boelens odor profiling study: Analyses and evaluations of odor/flavor profiling. Experiments and suggestions for future studies [Internal report]. Philip Morris USA. Retrieved from www .pmdocs.com.
Pintore, M., Wechman, C., Sicard, G., Chastrette, M., Amaury, N., & Chretien, J. R. (2006). Comparing the information content of two large olfactory databases. Journal of Chemical Information & Modeling, 46, 32–38. doi:10.1021/ci0502505
Poucher, W. A. (1974). Perfumes, cosmetics and soaps: Vol. 1. The raw materials of perfumery. London: Chapman & Hall.
Richardson, J. T., & Zucco, G. M. (1989). Cognition and olfaction: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 352–360. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.352
Rimmel, E. (1895). The base of perfumes. London.
Schiffman, S. S. (1974). Physicochemical correlates of olfactory quality. Science, 185, 112–117. doi:10.1126/science.185.4146.112
Schutz, H. G. (1964). A matching-standards method for characterizing odor qualities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 116, 517–526. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1964.tb45081.x
Seeman, J. I., Palen, J., & Ennis, D. M. (1987). Prediction of the odor quality of organic compounds: Odor profiling and chemical structure correlations [Internal report]. Philip Morris USA. Retrieved from www.pmdocs.com.
Sigma-Aldrich Fine Chemicals Company (2003). Flavors and fragrances 2003-2004 catalog. Milwaukee, WI: Author.
Stevenson, R. J., Prescott, J., & Boakes, R. A. (1995). The acquisition of taste properties by odors. Learning & Motivation, 26, 1–23. doi:10.1016/S0023-9690(05)80006-2
Thiboud, M. (1991). Empirical classification of odours. In P. M. Müller & D. Lamparsky (Eds.), Perfumes: Art, science, and technology (pp. 253–286). New York: Elsevier.
Tisserand, R. (1988). Essential oils as psychotherapeutic agents. In S. Van Toller & G. H. Dodd (Eds.), Perfumery: The psychology and biology of fragrance (pp. 167–181). London: Chapman & Hall.
Wise, P. M., Olsson, M. J., & Cain, W. S. (2000). Quantification of odor quality. Chemical Senses, 25, 429–443. doi:10.1093/ chemse/25.4.429
Yoshida, M. (1975). Psychometric classification of odors. Chemical Senses & Flavor, 1, 443–464. doi:10.1093/chemse/1.4.443
Zarzo, M. (2007). The sense of smell: Molecular basis of odorant recognition. Biological Reviews, 82, 455–479. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00019.x
Zarzo, M. (2008a). Psychologic dimensions in the perception of everyday odors: Pleasantness and edibility. Journal of Sensory Studies, 23, 354–376. doi:10.1111/j.1745-459X.2008.00160.x
Zarzo, M. (2008b). Relevant psychological dimensions in the perceptual space of perfumery odors. Food Quality & Preference, 19, 315–322. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2007.10.007
Zarzo, M., & Stanton, D. T. (2006). Identification of latent variables in a semantic odor profile database using principal component analysis. Chemical Senses, 31, 713–724. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjl013
Zwaardemaker, H. (1925). Classification des odeurs. In L’odorat (pp. 178–224). Paris: Doin.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Note—Accepted by the previous editorial team, when Thomas H. Carr was Editor.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zarzo, M., Stanton, D.T. Understanding the underlying dimensions in perfumers’ odor perception space as a basis for developing meaningful odor maps. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 71, 225–247 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3758/APP.71.2.225
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/APP.71.2.225