Abstract
To determine the relative effectiveness of telephone intervention styles with suicidal callers, researchers listened unobtrusively to 617 calls by suicidal persons at two suicide prevention centers and categorized all 66,953 responses by the 110 volunteer helpers according to a reliable 20-category checklist. Outcome measures showed observer evaluations of decreased depressive mood from the beginning to the end in 14% of calls, decreased suicidal urgency ratings from the beginning to the end in 27% of calls, and reaching a contract in 68% of calls, of which 54% of contracts were upheld according to follow-up data. Within the context of relatively directive interventions, a greater proportion of “Rogerian” nondirective responses was related to significantly more decreases in depression. Reduction in urgency and reaching a contract were related to greater use of Rogerian response categories only with nonchronic callers.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
REFERENCES
American Association of Suicidology. (1989). Organization Certification Standards Manual for Crisis Intervention Programs, Denver, CO: Author.
Apsler, R., & Hoople, H. (1976). Evaluation of crisis intervention services with anonymous clients, American Journal of Community Psychology, 4, 293–302.
Ashford, J. R., & Lawrence, P. A. (1976). Aspects of the epidemiology of suicide in England and Wales. International Journal of Epidemiology, 5, 133–144.
Bagley, C. R. (1968). The evaluation of a suicide prevention scheme by an ecological method. Social Science and Medicine, 2, 1–14.
Barraclough, B. M., Jennings, C., & Moss, J. R. (1977). Suicide prevention by the Samaritans. A controlled study of effectiveness. Lancet, 2, 237–239.
Bonie, K. A., Raab, G., & Sheehan, R. (1986). Effective contracting with repeat hot line callers. Presented at the 19th annual meeting of the American Association of Suicidology, Atlanta.
Carkhuff, R. R. (1968). Differential functioning of lay and professional helpers. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 15(2), 117–126.
Crocker, P. J. (1985). An evaluation of the quality of service at a volunteer-run telephone distress centre. Unpublished master's thesis, Wilfrid Laurier University.
Daigle, M., & Mishara, B. L. (1995). Intervention styles with suicidal callers at two suicide prevention centers, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 25(2), 261–275.
D'Augelli, A. R., Handis, M. H., Brumbaugh, L., Illig, V., Searer, R., Turner, D. W., & D'Augelli, J. F. (1978). The verbal helping behavior of experienced and novice telephone counselors. Journal of Community Psychology, 6, 222–228.
Desmond, F., et al. (1985). The chronically suicidal client: A comprehensive approach. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Suicidology, Toronto.
Echterling, L. G., & Hartsough, D. M. (1983). Relationship of telephone crisis intervention to successful crisis resolution. In J. P. Soubriere & J. Vedrinne (Eds.), Dépression et suicide: Aspects médicaux psychologiques et socio-culturels: Comptes-rendus de la XIe réunion de l'Association international pour la prévention du suicide, Paris, Juillet 1981 (pp. 724–729). Paris-Toronto: Pergamon.
Fowler, D. E., & McGee, R. K. (1973). Assessing the performance of telephone crisis workers: The development of a technical effectiveness scale. In D. Lester & G. W. Brockopp (Eds.), Crisis intervention and counseling by telephone (pp. 287–297). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Garfield, S. L., & Bergin, A. E. (Eds.) (1986). Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change. New York: Wiley.
Genthner, R. (1974). Evaluating the functioning of community-based hotlines. Professional Psychology, 5, 409–414.
Ginsburg, G. P. (1971). A note on community readiness to use a suicide prevention center, Bulletin of Suicidology, 8, 74–76.
Goodman, G., & Dooley, D. (1976). A framework for help-intended communication. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 13(2), 106–117.
Greenberg, L. S., & Pinsof, W. M. (1986). The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook. New York: Guilford.
Greer, S., & Anderson, M. (1979). Samaritan contact among 325 parasuicide patients, British Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 263–268.
Hill, C. E. (1986). An overview of the Hill Counselor and Client Verbal Response Modes category systems. In L. S. Greenberg & W. M. Pinsof (Eds.), The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook (pp. 131–159). New York: Guilford.
Hill, C. E. (1989). Therapist techniques and client outcomes: Eight cases of brief psychotherapy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hill, C. E., & Corbett, M. M. (1993). A perspective on the history of process and outcome research in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40(1), 3–24.
Hirsch, S. (1981). A critique of volunteer-staffed suicide prevention centers. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 26, 406–410.
Hollenbeck, A. R. (1978). Problems of reliability in observational research. In G. P. Sacket (Ed.), Observing behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 79–98). New York: Garland STPM.
Kiesler, D. J. (1973). The process of psychotherapy: Empirical foundations and systems of analysis. Chicago: Aldine.
King, G. D. (1977). An evaluation of the effectiveness of a telephone counselling center, American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 75–83.
Knickerbocker, D. A. (1973). Lay volunteer and professional trainee therapeutic functioning and outcomes in a suicide and crisis intervention service. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34, 416B. (University Microfilms No. 73-15, 510).
Knickerbocker, D. A., & McGee, R. K. (1973). Clinical effectiveness of nonprofessional and professional telephone workers in a crisis intervention center. In D. Lester & G. W. Brockopp (Eds.), Crisis intervention and counseling by telephone (pp. 298–309). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Kolker, H., & Katz, S. (1971). If you've missed the age you've missed a lot. Crisis Intervention, 3, 34–37.
Kreitman, N. (1976). The coal gas story. United Kingdom suicide rates, 1960–71. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine, 30, 86–93.
Lambert, M. J., Christensen, E. R., & DeJulio, S. S. (1983). The assessment of psychotherapy outcome. New York: Wiley.
Lester, D. (1970). Steps toward the evaluation of a suicide prevention center (Parts 1 to 4). Crisis Intervention, 2.
Lester, D. (1991). Do suicide prevention center prevent suicide? Homeostasis in Health and Disease, 33, 190–194.
Lester, D. (1993). The effectiveness of suicide prevention programs, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 23, 263–267.
Lester, D. (1994). L'efficacité des centers de prévention du suicide, Santé mentale au Ouébec, 19(2), 15–24.
Lester, D., & Brockopp, G. W. (1970). Chronic callers to a suicide prevention center. Community Mental Health Journal, 6, 246–250.
Lewin, R. A., et al. (1992). On chronic suicidality. Psychiatry, 55, 16–27.
Luborsky, L., Singer, B., Hartke, J., Crits-Christoph, P., & Cohen, M. (1984). Shifts in depressive state during psychotherapy: Which concepts of depression fit the context of Mr. Q's shifts? In L. N. Rice & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), Patterns of change. Intensive analysis of psychotherapy process (pp. 157–193). New York: Guilford.
McGee, R. K., Richard, W. C., & Bercun, C. (1972). A survey of telephone answering services in suicide prevention and crisis intervention agencies. Life-Threatening Behavior, 2(1), 42–47.
McKenna, J., Nelson, G., Chatterson, J., Koperno, M., & Brown, J. H. (1975). Chronically and acutely suicidal persons one month after contact with a crisis intervention centre, Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 20, 451–454.
Medoff, M. H. (1984). An evaluation of the effectiveness of suicide prevention centers, Journal of Behavioral Economics, 15, 43–55.
Miller, H. L., Coombs, D. W., Leeper, J. D., & Barton, S. N. (1984). An analysis of the effects of suicide prevention facilities on suicide rates in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 340–343.
Mishara, B. L., & Daigle, M. (1992). The effectiveness of Suicide Prevention Centers. Santé Mentale au Canada/Canada's Mental Health, 40(3), 24–29.
Mishara, B. L., & Giroux, G. (1993). The relationship between coping strategies and perceived stress in telephone intervention volunteers. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 23(3), 221–229.
Morissette, P. (1984). Le suicide. Démystification, intervention et prévention. Québec: Le centre de prévention du suicide de Québec.
Motto, J. A. (1971). Evaluation of a suicide prevention center by sampling the population at risk, Life-Threatening Behavior, 1(1), 18–22.
Motto, J. A., Brooks, R. M., Ross, R. M., & Allen, N. H. (1974). Standards for suicide prevention and crisis centers. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Reid, W. J. (1978). The task-centered system. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rogers, R. L., & Rogers, C. A. (1978). An analysis of telephone crisis intervention counseling based upon consumer evaluation, Crisis Intervention, 9, 102–116.
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rudestam, K. E. (1978). The challenge of the chronic caller. Presented at the 2nd Annual Conference for Crisis Intervention Centres, Toronto, 1978.
Sawyer, J. B., & Jameton, E. M. (1979). Chronic callers to a suicide prevention center. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 9(2), 97–104.
Shneidman, E. S. (1986). Some essentials of suicide and some implications for response. In A. Roy (Ed.), Suicide (pp. 1–16). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Slem, C. M., & Cotler, S. (1973). Crisis phone services: Evaluation of a hotline program, American Journal of Community Psychology, 1, 219–227.
Stein, D. M., & Lambert, M. J. (1984). Telephone counseling and crisis intervention: A review, American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 101–126.
Stephenson, G. M., Ayling, K., & Rutter, D. R. (1976). The role of visual communication in social exchange. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15, 113–120.
Streiner, D. L., & Adam, K. S. (1987). Evaluation of the effectiveness of suicide prevention programs: A methodological perspective, Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 17(2), 93–106.
Suicide in Canada. (1994). Update of the report of the Task Force on Suicide in Canada. Ottawa: Health, Canada.
Tekavčič-Grad, O., & Zavasnik, A. (1987). Comparison between counselor's and caller's expectations and their realization on the telephone crisis line, Crisis, 8(2), 162–177.
Thigpen, J. D., & Jones, L. (1977). A comprehensive client management system for crisis intervention services. Presented at the 10th annual meeting of the American Association of Suicidology, Boston.
Whittemore, K. (1970). Ten centers. Atlanta: Lullwater.
Walfish, S., Tulkin, S. R., Tapp, J. T., Slaikeu, K. A., & Russell, M. (1976). The development of a contract negotiation scale for crisis counseling. Crisis Intervention, 7(4), 136–148.
Wold, C. I. (1971). Sub-groupings of suicidal people. Omega, Journal of Death and Dying, 2, 19–29.
Wold, C. I. (1973). A two-year follow-up of suicide prevention center patients, Life-Threatening Behavior, 3(3), 171–183.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mishara, B.L., Daigle, M.S. Effects of Different Telephone Intervention Styles with Suicidal Callers at Two Suicide Prevention Centers: An Empirical Investigation. Am J Community Psychol 25, 861–885 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022269314076
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022269314076