Abstract
Cognitive and brain reserve are construct designed to explain the differences between brain damage or pathology and the clinical manifestation of the condition. Brain reserve is typically introduced as a passive model dealing with anatomical and structural changes in the brain, while cognitive reserve represents variability in the synaptic organization and activation of specific areas. Proxy measures and a residual approach are often used to estimate cognitive reserve with both approaches having its statistical and practical (dis)advantages. For brain reserve, intracranial volume or specific patterns of grey matter volume seem to be the most accepted quantitative measure. In psychotic disorders, cognitive and brain reserve might have an impact on cognitive performance and serve as a predictor for cognitive and functional outcomes of patients. Since cognitive deficits are often present in psychotic disorders, the reserves could also benefit treatment targeting cognitive impairment, specifically when designing a more personalized approach to cognitive training. The present paper is a synthesis of previous studies dealing with cognitive and brain reserve mapping the current research and potential of these constructs in psychotic disorders.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amoretti, S., Bernardo, M., Bonnin, C. M., Bioque, M., Cabrera, B., Mezquida, G., et al. (2016). The impact of cognitive reserve in the outcome of first-episode psychoses: 2-year follow-up study. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(10), 1638–1648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.07.003.
Amoretti, S., Cabrera, B., Torrent, C., Mezquida, G., Lobo, A., González-Pinto, A., et al. (2018). Cognitive reserve as an outcome predictor: first-episode affective versus non-affective psychosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(5), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12949.
Amoretti, S., Cabrera, B., Torrent, C., Bonnín, C., Mezquida, G., Garriga, M., Jiménez, E., Martínez-Arán, A., Solé, B., Reinares, M., Varo, C., Penadés, R., Grande, I., Salagre, E., Parellada, E., Bioque, M., Garcia-Rizo, C., Meseguer, A., Anmella, G., Rosa, A. R., et al. (2019). Cognitive reserve assessment scale in health (CRASH): its validity and reliability. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(5), 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8050586.
Barnett, J. H., Salmond, C. H., Jones, P. B., & Sahakian, B. J. (2006). Cognitive reserve in neuropsychiatry. Psychological Medicine, 36(8), 1053–1064. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007501.
Bowie, C. R., Bell, M. D., Fiszdon, J. M., Johannesen, J. K., Lindenmayer, J. P., McGurk, S. R., et al. (2020). Cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: An expert working group white paper on core techniques. Schizophrenia Research, 215, 49–53.
Buonocore, M., Bechi, M., Uberti, P., Spangaro, M., Cocchi, F., Guglielmino, C., et al. (2018). Cognitive reserve profiles in chronic schizophrenia: Effects on theory of mind performance and improvement after training. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(6), 563–571. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617718000012.
Buonocore, M., Bosinelli, F., Bechi, M., Spangaro, M., Piantanida, M., Cocchi, F., et al. (2019). The role of premorbid adjustment in schizophrenia: Focus on cognitive remediation outcome. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 29(10), 1611–1624. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2018.1433048.
Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., et al. (2018). Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(11), 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-018-0068-2.
Coffey, C. E., Saxton, J. A., Ratcliff, G., Bryan, R. N., & Lucke, J. F. (1999). Relation of education to brain size in normal aging: implications for the reserve hypothesis. Neurology, 53(1), 189–189. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.53.1.189.
Cunha, P. J., Rosa, P. G., Ayres, A., Duran, F. L., Santos, L. C., Scazufca, M., Menezes, P. R., dos Santos, B., Murray, R. M., Crippa, J. A., Busatto, G. F., & Schaufelberger, M. S. (2013). Cannabis use, cognition and brain structure in first-episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 147(2–3), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.04.009.
d'Amato, T., Bation, R., Cochet, A., Jalenques, I., Galland, F., Giraud-Baro, E., et al. (2011). A randomized, controlled trial of computer-assisted cognitive remediation for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 125(2–3), 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.10.023.
de la Serna, E., Andrés-Perpiñá, S., Puig, O., Baeza, I., Bombin, I., Bartrés-Faz, D., et al. (2013). Cognitive reserve as a predictor of two year neuropsychological performance in early onset first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 143(1), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.026.
Dickinson, D., Iannone, V. N., Wilk, C. M., & Gold, J. M. (2004). General and specific cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 55(8), 826–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.12.010.
Dickinson, D., Ragland, J. D., Calkins, M. E., Gold, J. M., & Gur, R. C. (2006). A comparison of cognitive structure in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls using confirmatory factor analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 85, 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.003.
Edland, S. D., Xu, Y., Plevak, M., O'Brien, P., Tangalos, E. G., Petersen, R. C., & Jack Jr., C. R. (2002). Total intracranial volume: normative values and lack of association with Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 59(2), 272–274. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.59.2.272.
Gilbert, E., Mérette, C., Jomphe, V., Émond, C., Rouleau, N., Bouchard, R. H., et al. (2014). Cluster analysis of cognitive deficits may mark heterogeneity in schizophrenia in terms of outcome and response to treatment. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264(4), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-013-0463-7.
Gold, J. M., & Dickinson, D. (2012). “Generalized cognitive deficit” in schizophrenia: overused or underappreciated? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39(2), 263–265. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs143.
Gold, J. M., Hahn, B., Strauss, G. P., & Waltz, J. A. (2009). Turning it upside down: areas of preserved cognitive function in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology Review, 19(3), 294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9098-x.
Habeck, C., Razlighi, Q., Gazes, Y., Barulli, D., Steffener, J., & Stern, Y. (2017). Cognitive reserve and brain maintenance: orthogonal concepts in theory and practice. Cerebral Cortex, 27(8), 3962–3969. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw208.
Herold, C. J., Lässer, M. M., Seidl, U. W., Hirjak, D., Thomann, P. A., & Schröder, J. (2018). Neurological soft signs and psychopathology in chronic schizophrenia: a cross-sectional study in three age groups. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 98. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00098.
Herrero, P., Contador, I., Stern, Y., Fernández-Calvo, B., Sánchez, A., & Ramos, F. (2020). Influence of cognitive reserve in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 108, 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.019.
Hoff, A. L., Svetina, C., Shields, G., Stewart, J., & DeLisi, L. E. (2005). Ten year longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 78(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2005.05.010.
Huang, C. M., & Huang, H. W. (2019). Aging, neurocognitive reserve, and the healthy brain. Psychology of Learning and Motivation-Advances in Research and Theory, 71, 175–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2019.07.006.
Jones, R. N., Fong, T. G., Metzger, E., Tulebaev, S., Yang, F. M., Alsop, D. C., Marcantonio, E. R., Cupples, L. A., Gottlieb, G., & Inouye, S. K. (2010). Aging, brain disease, and reserve: implications for delirium. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(2), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181b972e8.
Jones, R. N., Manly, J., Glymour, M. M., Rentz, D. M., Jefferson, A. L., & Stern, Y. (2011). Conceptual and measurement challenges in research on cognitive reserve. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(4), 593–601. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710001748.
Joyce, E. M. (2013). Cognitive function in schizophrenia: insights from intelligence research. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 203(3), 161–162. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.109553.
Kartschmit, N., Mikolajczyk, R., Schubert, T., & Lacruz, M. E. (2019). Measuring cognitive reserve (CR)-a systematic review of measurement properties of CR questionnaires for the adult population. PLoS One, 14(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219851.
Katzman, R. (1993). Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.43.1_Part_1.13.
Katzman, R., Aronson, M., Fuld, P., Kawas, C., Brown, T., Morgenstern, H., et al. (1989). Development of dementing illnesses in an 80-year-old volunteer cohort. Annals of Neurology: Official Journal of the American Neurological Association and the Child Neurology Society, 25(4), 317–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410250402.
Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2015). IQ and schizophrenia in a Swedish national sample: their causal relationship and the interaction of IQ with genetic risk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(3), 259–265. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040516.
Keshavan, M. S., Eack, S. M., Wojtalik, J. A., Prasad, K. M., Francis, A. N., Bhojraj, T. S., et al. (2011). A broad cortical reserve accelerates response to cognitive enhancement therapy in early course schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 130(1–3), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.05.001.
Khandaker, G. M., Barnett, J. H., White, I. R., & Jones, P. B. (2011). A quantitative meta-analysis of population-based studies of premorbid intelligence and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 132(2–3), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.06.017.
Koenen, K. C., Moffitt, T. E., Roberts, A. L., Martin, L. T., Kubzansky, L., Harrington, H., et al. (2009). Childhood IQ and adult mental disorders: a test of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030343.
Kontis, D., Huddy, V., Reeder, C., Landau, S., & Wykes, T. (2013). Effects of age and cognitive reserve on cognitive remediation therapy outcome in patients with schizophrenia. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(3), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2012.12.013.
Leeson, V. C., Harrison, I., Ron, M. A., Barnes, T. R., & Joyce, E. M. (2012). The effect of cannabis use and cognitive reserve on age at onset and psychosis outcomes in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(4), 873–880. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq153.
Leeson, V. C., Sharma, P., Harrison, M., Ron, M. A., Barnes, T. R., & Joyce, E. M. (2011). IQ trajectory, cognitive reserve, and clinical outcome following a first episode of psychosis: a 3-year longitudinal study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(4), 768–777. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp143.
Liu, Y., Julkunen, V., Paajanen, T., Westman, E., Wahlund, L. O., Aitken, A., et al. (2012). Education increases reserve against Alzheimer's disease--evidence from structural MRI analysis. Neuroradiology, 54(9), 929–938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-012-1005-0.
MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2008). Premorbid adjustment, symptom development and quality of life in first episode psychosis: a systematic review and critical reappraisal. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 117(2), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01134.x.
Mak, M., Tybura, P., Bieńikowski, P., Karakiewicz, B., & Samochowiec, J. (2013). The efficacy of cognitive neurorehabilitation with RehaCom program in schizophrenia patients. Psychiatria Polska, 47(2), 213–223. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/17946.
Malpetti, M., Ballarini, T., Presotto, L., Garibotto, V., Tettamanti, M., Perani, D., et al. (2017). Gender differences in healthy aging and Alzheimer’s dementia: a 18F-FDG-PET study of brain and cognitive reserve. Human Brain Mapping, 38(8), 4212–4227. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23659.
McGurk, S. R., Twamley, E. W., Sitzer, D. I., McHugo, G. J., & Mueser, K. T. (2007). A meta-analysis of cognitive remediation in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(12), 1791–1802. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07060906.
Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Reichenberg, A., Keefe, R. S., Fisher, H. L., Harrington, H., et al. (2014). Neuropsychological decline in schizophrenia from the premorbid to the postonset period: evidence from a population-representative longitudinal study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(1), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12111438.
Muller, A. (2002). Education, income inequality, and mortality: A multiple regression analysis. BMJ, 324(7328), 23. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7328.23.
Nucci, M., Mapelli, D., & Mondini, S. (2012). The cognitive reserve questionnaire (CRIq): a new instrument for measuring the cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 218–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/t53917-000.
Opdebeeck, C., Martyr, A., & Clare, L. (2016). Cognitive reserve and cognitive function in healthy older people: a meta-analysis. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 23(1), 40–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450.
Osborne, A. L., Solowij, N., & Weston-Green, K. (2017). A systematic review of the effect of cannabidiol on cognitive function: Relevance to schizophrenia. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 72, 310–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.012.
Penadés, R., Pujol, N., Catalán, R., Masana, G., García-Rizo, C., Bargalló, N., et al. (2016). Cortical thickness in regions of frontal and temporal lobes is associated with responsiveness to cognitive remediation therapy in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 171(1–3), 110–116.
Prikken, M., Konings, M. J., Lei, W. U., Begemann, M. J., & Sommer, I. E. (2019). The efficacy of computerized cognitive drill and practice training for patients with a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 204, 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.07.034.
Ramsay, I. S., Fryer, S., Boos, A., Roach, B. J., Fisher, M., Loewy, R., et al. (2018). Response to targeted cognitive training correlates with change in thalamic volume in a randomized trial for early schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 43(3), 590. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.213.
Reed, B. R., Mungas, D., Farias, S. T., Harvey, D., Beckett, L., Widaman, K.,... & DeCarli, C. (2010). Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain, 133(8), 2196–2209. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq154.
Reser, M. P., Slikboer, R., & Rossell, S. L. (2019). A systematic review of factors that influence the efficacy of cognitive remediation therapy in schizophrenia. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 53(7), 624–641. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853348.
Rodriguez, M., Zaytseva, Y., Cvrčková, A., Dvořaček, B., Dorazilová, A., Jonáš, J., et al. (2019). Cognitive profiles and functional connectivity in first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders-linking behavioral and neuronal data. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00689.
Rund, B. R., Melle, I., Friis, S., Johannessen, J. O., Larsen, T. K., Midbøe, L. J., et al. (2007). The course of neurocognitive functioning in first-episode psychosis and its relation to premorbid adjustment, duration of untreated psychosis, and relapse. Schizophrenia Research, 91(1–3), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.11.030.
Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: a formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7(3), 273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.7.3.273.
Schoeler, T., Petros, N., Di Forti, M., Klamerus, E., Foglia, E., Murray, R., & Bhattacharyya, S. (2017). Poor medication adherence and risk of relapse associated with continued cannabis use in patients with first-episode psychosis: a prospective analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(8), 627–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30233-X.
Shmukler, A. B., Gurovich, I. Y., Agius, M., & Zaytseva, Y. (2015). Long-term trajectories of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: a critical overview. European Psychiatry, 30(8), 1002–1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.08.005.
Silventoinen, K., & Lahelma, E. (2002). Health inequalities by education and age in four Nordic countries, 1986 and 1994. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 56(4), 253–258. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.56.4.253.
Soloveva, M. V., Jamadar, S. D., Poudel, G., & Georgiou-Karistianis, N. (2018). A critical review of brain and cognitive reserve in Huntington’s disease. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 88, 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.003.
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702813248.
Stern, Y. (2017). An approach to studying the neural correlates of reserve. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11(2), 410–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-016-9566-x.
Stern, Y., & Barulli, D. (2019). Cognitive reserve. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 167, 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804766-8.00011-X.
Stern, Y., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Bartrés-Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., et al. (2018). Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer's & Dementia. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219.
Stern, Y., Barnes, C. A., Grady, C., Jones, R. N., & Raz, N. (2019). Brain reserve, cognitive reserve, compensation, and maintenance: operationalization, validity, and mechanisms of cognitive resilience. Neurobiology of Aging, 83, 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.03.022.
Sumowski, J. F., Rocca, M. A., Leavitt, V. M., Riccitelli, G., Comi, G., DeLuca, J., & Filippi, M. (2013). Brain reserve and cognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis: what you’ve got and how you use it. Neurology, 80(24), 2186–2193. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318296e98b.
Torgalsbøen, A. K. (1999). Full recovery from schizophrenia: the prognostic role of premorbid adjustment, symptoms at first admission, precipitating events and gender. Psychiatry Research, 88(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(99)00077-3.
Tripathi, A., Kar, S. K., & Shukla, R. (2018). Cognitive deficits in Schizophrenia: Understanding the biological correlates and remediation strategies. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience: The Official Scientific Journal of the Korean College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 16(1), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2018.16.1.7.
Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705006264.
Van Loenhoud, A. C., Groot, C., Vogel, J. W., Van Der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2018). Is intracranial volume a suitable proxy for brain reserve? Alzheimer's Research & Therapy, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-018-0408-5.
Vance, D. E., Cody, S. L., Yoo-Jeong, M., & Nicholson, W. C. (2015). The role of employment on neurocognitive reserve in adults with HIV: a review of the literature. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 26(4), 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2015.04.003.
Wang, M. Y., Ho, N. F., Sum, M. Y., Collinson, S. L., & Sim, K. (2016). Impact of duration of untreated psychosis and premorbid intelligence on cognitive functioning in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 175(1–3), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.04.002.
Wegiel, J., Flory, M., Kuchna, I., Nowicki, K., Yong Ma, S., Wegiel, J., et al. (2017). Multiregional age-associated reduction of brain neuronal reserve without association with neurofibrillary degeneration or β-amyloidosis. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 76(6), 439–457. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/nlx027.
Wykes, T., & Huddy, V. (2009). Cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: it is even more complicated. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 22(2), 161–167. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e328322fbf4.
Wykes, T., & Reeder, C. (2006). Cognitive Remediation Therapy for Schizophrenia: Theory and Practice. London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203098707.
Wykes, T., & Spaulding, W. D. (2011). Thinking about the future cognitive remediation therapy-what works and could we do better? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(suppl_2), S80–S90. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbr064.
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011). A meta-analysis of cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: methodology and effect sizes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(5), 472–485. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855.
Yücel, M., Bora, E., Lubman, D. I., Solowij, N., Brewer, W. J., Cotton, S. M., et al. (2012). The impact of cannabis use on cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of existing findings and new data in a first-episode sample. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(2), 316–330. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq079.
Zahodne, L. B., Manly, J. J., Brickman, A. M., Siedlecki, K. L., DeCarli, C., & Stern, Y. (2013). Quantifying cognitive reserve in older adults by decomposing episodic memory variance: replication and extension. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(8), 854–862. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617713000738.
Zahodne, L. B., Manly, J. J., Brickman, A. M., Narkhede, A., Griffith, E. Y., Guzman, V. A., et al. (2015). Is residual memory variance a valid method for quantifying cognitive reserve? A longitudinal application. Neuropsychologia, 77, 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.09.009.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the European Regional Development Fund project “PharmaBrain” no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_025/0007444.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure Statement
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Knížková, K., Rodriguez, M. Cognitive and Brain Reserve in Psychotic Disorders: an Overview of Current Research and Treatment Implications. Act Nerv Super 62, 127–136 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41470-020-00078-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41470-020-00078-w