Abstract
With an estimated volume of approximately 15 to 20 km3, the Dangkhar landslide located in the Spiti valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, is one of the largest landslides on earth. Its initiation is geochronologically constrained to have occurred during the late Pleistocene and may be related to glacial retreat following local last glacial maximum, which, depending on the source, occurred around 80 to 30 ka years ago. There is significant value in understanding the causative factors contributing to such an enormous and rare event. On the basis of comprehensive field studies and laboratory investigations, it is concluded that erosional, structural, and depositional features within and surroundings of the Dangkhar landslide are critical for understanding landslide initiation and its long-term behavior.
The landslide developed as a block slide along a synformal flexure, and through-cutting lateral valleys fulfill the kinematic conditions for creating a massive removable block of earth. Deposits of weakly cemented and crudely bedded carbonate breccias in the landslide’s toe region represent depositional activity during recession of the main valley glacier, and cross-cutting structural relationships involving ground ruptures (lineaments) and rock glaciers in the head region record long-term, ongoing landslide deformations subsequent to its initiation. Stable isotope signatures of samples indicate presence of freshwater associated with the formation of breccia deposits.
While many details concerning the timing and development of the Dangkhar landslide remain unknown, recent studies illuminate some very important aspects. The glacial history of the Spiti valley combined with structural kinematics are clearly important factors concerning landslide development. Also important are constraints concerning the minimum age of landslide initiation after recession of a valley glacier, and structural evidence documenting long-term ongoing slope deformations.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Ameta, S.S. (1979) Some observations on geomorphology of the Spiti Valley, Lahaul and Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh. Himalayan Geology, v.9(2), pp.646–656.
Anoop, A., Prasad, S., Basavaiah, N., Brauer, A., Shahzad, F., Deenadayalan, K. (2012) Tectonic versus climate influence on landscape evolution: A case study from the upper Spiti valley, NW Himalaya. Geomorphology, v.145–146, pp.32–44.
Anoop, A., Prasad, S., Krishnan, R., Naumann, R., Dulski, P. (2013) Intensified monsoon and spatiotemporal changes in precipitation patterns in the NW Himalaya during the early-mid Holocene. Quaternary Internat., v.313–314, pp.74–84.
Ballantyne, C.K. (2002) Paraglacial geomorphology. Quaternary Sci. Rev., v.21, pp.1935–2017.
Bennett, M.M., Glasser, N.F. (2009) Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2nd ed., pp.1–400.
Bhargava, O.N. (1990) Holocene tectonics south of the lndus suture, Lahaul-Ladakh Himalaya, India: a consequence of Indian plate motion. Tectonophysics, v.174, pp.315–320.
Bhargava, O.N., Bassi, U.K. (1998) Geology of Spiti Kinnaur Himachal Himalaya. Geol. Surv. India Mem., v.124, pp.1–210.
Bhargava, O.N. (2008) An updated introduction to the Spiti geology. Jour. Paleont. Soc. India, v.53(2), pp.113–129.
Bhattacharyya, A., Ranhotra, P.S., Shah, S.K. (2006) Temporal and spatial variations of Late Pleistocene-Holocene climate of the Western Himalaya based on pollen records and their implications to monsoon dynamics. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.68, pp.507–515.
Bookhagen, B., Thiede, R.C., Strecker, M.R. (2005) Late Quaternary intensified monsoon phases control landscape evolution in the northwest Himalaya. Geology, v.33, pp.149–152.
Bourne, S. (1870) A photographic journey through the Higher Himalaya. View from the top of the Manirung Pass. Image No. 1469, copyright Victoria & Albert Museum, London. British Jour. Photography v.17, pp.39–40.
Eugster, P., Scherler, D., Thiede, R.C., Codilean, A.T., Strecker, M.R. (2016) Rapid Last Glacial Maximum deglaciation in the Indian Himalaya coeval with midlatitude glaciers: New insights from 10Be-dating of ice-polished bedrock surfaces in the Chandra Valley, NW Himalaya. Geophys. Res. Lett., v.43, pp.1589–1597.
Eyles, N., Eyles, C.H., Miall, A.D. (1983) Lithofacies types and vertical profile models; an alternative approach to the description and environmental interpretation of glacial diamict and diamictite sequences. Sedimentology, v.30, pp.393–410.
Goodman, R.E., Shi, G-H. (1985) Block Theory and its application to rock engineering. Prentice-Hall Inc., pp.1–338p.
Griesbach, C.L. (1891) Geology of the Central Himalayas. Geol. Surv. India Mem., v.23, pp.1–232.
Gupta, V., Sah, M.P. (2008) Impact of the Trans-Himalayan Landslide Lake Outburst Flood (LLOF) in the Satluj catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India. Nat. Haz., v.45, pp.379–390.
Gruber, S. (2012) Derivation and analysis of a high-resolution estimate of global permafrost zonation. The Cryosphere, v.6, pp.221–233.
Hughes, P.D., Gibbard, P.L., Ehlers J. (2013) Timing of glaciation during the last glacial cycle: evaluating the concept of a global ‘Last Glacial Maximum’ (LGM). Earth Sci. Rev., v.125, pp.171–198.
Kaspar, M., Kieffer, D.S. (2015) Preliminary engineering geological characterization of the ca. 20 km3 Dangkhar Landslide in the Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. In: Lollino, G., Giordan, D., Crosta, G.B., Corominas, J., Azzam, R., Wasowski, J., Sciarra, N. (Eds.) Engineering Geology for Society and Territory, v.2, pp.891–894.
Kaspar, M. (2020) Geomorphology, geomechanics, and geochronology of the Dangkhar Landslide, Himachal Pradesh, India. PhD Dissertation Graz University of Technology, pp.1–199.
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., Rubel, F. (2006) World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorol. Zeitsch., v.15, pp.259–263.
McMahon, C.A. (1897) Notes of a tour through Hangrang and Spiti. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.12, pp.57–69.
Neumayer, J., Wiesmayr, G., Janda, C., Grasemann, B., Draganits, E. (2004) Eohimalayan fold and thrust belt in the NW-Himalaya (Lingti-Pin Valleys): Shortening and depth to detachment calculation. Austrian Jour. Earth Sci. v.95–96, pp.28–36.
Oldham, R.D. (1888) Some notes on the geology of the NW Himalayas. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.23, pp.149–159.
Owen, L.A. (2009) Latest Pleistocene and Holocene glacier fluctuations in the Himalaya and Tibet. Quaternary Sci. Rev., v.28, pp.2150–2164.
Owen, L.A., England, J. (1998) Observations on rock glaciers in the Himalayas and Karakoram Mountains of northern Pakistan and India. Geomorphology, v.26, pp.199–213.
Owen, L.A., Benn, D.I. (2005) Equilibrium-line altitudes of the Last Glacial Maximum for the Himalaya and Tibet: an assessment and evaluation of results. Quaternary Internat., v. 138–139, pp.55–78.
Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A., Srivastava, P., Ray, Y. (2009) Chronology of relict lake deposits in the Spiti River, NW Trans Himalaya: implications of Late Pleistocene-Holocene climate tectonic perturbations. Geomorphology, v.108, pp.264–272.
Rawat, S., Gupta, A.K., Sangode, S.J., Srivastava, P., Nainwal, H.C. (2015) Late Pleistocene Holocene vegetation and Indian summer monsoon record from the Lahaul, Northwest Himalaya, India. Quaternary Sci. Rev., v.114, pp.167–181.
Saha, S., Sharma, M.C., Murari, M.K., Owen, L.A., Caffee, M.W. (2016) Geomorphology, sedimentology and minimum exposure ages of streamlined subglacial landforms in the NW Himalaya, India. Boreas, v.45, pp.284–303.
Sathya (2016) Larsawe Pass/Manirang Pass — July to Aug 2016. Trekking Blog, available at http://sathyastravels.blogspot.com/2016/08/larsawepass-manirang-pass-july-to-aug.html?view=timeslide
Sharma, S., Shukla, A.D. (2018) Factors governing the pattern of glacier advances since the Last Glacial Maxima in the transitional climate zone of the Southern Zanskar Ranges, NW Himalaya. Quaternary Sci. Rev., v.201, pp.223–240.
Singh, S., Jain, A.K., Sinha, P., Singh, V.N., Srivastava, L.S. (1976) the Kinnaur Earthquake of January 19, 1975: a field report. Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., v.66(3), pp.887–901.
Srivastava, L.S. (1988) Landslides in rock slopes during January 19, 1975, Kinnaur Earthquake in Himachal Pradesh, India. Int. Conf. Case Hist. Geotech. Eng., No.4.14, pp.779–785.
Srivastava, P., Ray, Y., Phartiyal, B., Sharma, A. (2013) Late Pleistocene-Holocene morphosedimentary architecture, Spiti River, arid higher Himalaya. Internat. Jour. Earth Sci. (Geol. Rundsch.), v.102, pp.1967–1984.
Taylor, P.J., Mitchell, W.A. (2000) Late Quaternary glacial history of the Zanskar Range, Northwest Indian Himalaya. Quaternary Intetnat., v.65–66, pp.81–99.
Theobald, W. (1862) Notes on a trip from Shimla to the Spiti Valley and Chomoriri (Tshomoriri) Lake during the months of July, August and September 1861. Jour. Asiat. Soc. Beng., v.31, pp.480–527.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the reviewer for the constructive comments and suggestions that helped improving the quality of the manuscript. Gratitude is also expressed to the hospitable and supportive people of Dangkhar, which made the stay during the field work a memorable lifetime experience.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kaspar, M., Kieffer, D.S. Geologic, Geomorphologic, and Climatic Preparatory Conditions for the Evolution of the Dangkhar Landslide, Himachal Pradesh, India. J Geol Soc India 98, 903–910 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-022-2093-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-022-2093-z