Abstract
Multi-ring impact basins have been found on the surfaces of almost all planetary bodies in the Solar system with solid crusts. The details of their formation mechanism are still unclear. We present results of our numerical modeling of the formation of the largest known terrestrial impact craters. The geological and geophysical data on these structures accumulated over many decades are used to place constraints on the parameters of available numerical models with a dual purpose: (i) to choose parameters in available mechanical models for the crustal response of planetary bodies to a large impact and (ii) to use numerical modeling to refine the possible range of original diameters and the morphology of partially eroded terrestrial craters. We present numerical modeling results for the Vredefort, Sudbury, Chicxulub, and Popigai impact craters and compare these results with available geological and geophysical information.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
REFERENCES
Abramov, O. and Kring, D.A., Numerical Modeling of an Impact-Induced Hydrothermal System at the Sudbury Crater, J. Geophys. Res. (Planets), 2004, vol. 109, p. 10007.
Alvarez, L.W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., et al., Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction, Science, 1980, vol. 208, pp. 1095–1108.
Amsden, A.A., Ruppel, H.M., and Hirt, C.W., SALE: A Simplified ALE Computer Program for Fluid Flow at All Speeds, Los Alamos: Los Alamos Laboratory Report LA-8095, 1980.
Ariskin, A.A., Deutsch, A., and Ostermann, M., Sudbury Igneous Complex: Simulating Phase Equilibria and in Situ Differentiation for Two Proposed Parental Magmas, in Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution II, Dressler, B.O., and Sharpton, V.L., Eds., Boulder: Geological Soc. Am., 1999, pp. 373–387.
Barsukov, V.L., Venusian Igneous Rocks, in Venus geology, geochemistry, and geophysics-Research results from the USSR, Barsukov, V.L., Basilevsky, A.T., Volkov, V.P., et al., Eds., Tucson: Univ. Arizona Press, 1992, pp. 165–176.
Bottomley, R., Grieve, R., York, D., et al., The Age of the Popigai Impact Event and Its Relation To Events at the Eocene/Oligocene Boundary, Nature, 1997, vol. 388, pp. 365–368.
Bralower, T.J., Paull, C.K., and Leckie, R.M., The Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Cocktail: Chicxulub Impact Triggers Margin Collapse, Geology, 1998, vol. 26, no.4, pp. 331–334.
Christeson, G.L., Nakamura, Y., Buffler, R.T., et al., Deep Crustal Structure of the Chicxulub Impact Crater, J. Geophys. Res., 2001, vol. 106, pp. 21751–21770.
Collins, G.S., Melosh, H.J., and Ivanov, B.A., Modeling Damage and Deformation in Impact Simulations, Met. Plan. Sci, 2004, vol. 39, no.2, pp. 217–231.
Dahlman, O. and Israelson, H., Monitoring Underground Nuclear Explosions, New York: Elsevier, 1977.
De Wit, M.J., Roering, C., Hart, R.J., et al., Formation of An Archean Continent, Nature, 1992, vol. 357, pp. 553–562.
Deutsch, A. and Grieve, R.A.F., The Sudbury Structure: Constraints on Its Genesis from Lithoprobe Results, Geophys. Res. Lett., 1994, vol. 21, pp. 963–966.
Deutsch, A., Grieve, R.A.F., Avermann, M., et al., The Sudbury Structure (Ontario, Canada): a Tectonically Deformed Multi-Ring Impact Basin, Geol. Rundsch., 1995, vol. 84, no.4, pp. 697–709.
Deutsch, A., Masaitis, V.L., Langenhorst, F., et al., Popigai, Siberia-Well Preserved Giant Impact Structure, National Treasury, and World'S Geological Heritage, Episodes, 2000, vol. 23, no.1, pp. 3–11.
Dines, J. and Walsh, J., Impact Theory: General Principles and Method of Calculation in Euler Coordinates, in Vysokoskorostnye udarnye yavleniya (High-Speed Impact Phenomena), Moscow: Mir, 1973, pp. 49–111.
Donofrio, R.R., North American Impact Structures Hold Giant Field Potential, Oil Gas J., 1998, no. 5, pp. 69–83.
Doucoure, C.M., de Wit, M.J., and Mushayandebvu, M.F., Effective Elastic Thickness of the Continental Lithosphere in South Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 1996, vol. 101, pp. 11291–11304.
Dressler, B.O., General Geology of the Sudbury Area, in The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure: Ontario Geological Survey Special, Pye, E.G., Naldrett, A.J., and Giblin, P.E., Eds., Ontario: Ministry of Natural Resoursec of Canada, 1984, vol. 1, pp. 57–82.
Dutta, U., Biswas, N., Martirosyan, A., et al., Estimation of Earthquake Source Parameters and Site Response in Anchorage, Alaska from Strong-Motion Network Data Using Generalized Inversion Method, Phys. Earth, Planet. Inter., 2003, vol. 137, pp. 13–29.
Ebbing, J., Janle, P., Koulouris, J., et al., 3D Gravity Modelling of the Chicxulub Impact Structure, Planet. Space Sci., 2001, vol. 49, pp. 599–609.
Foya, S.N., Gibson, R.L., and Reimold, W.U., Impact-Related Hydrothermal Alteration of Witwatersrand Gold Reefs in the Vredefort Dome and Witwatersrand Gold-fields, South Africa, Met. Plan. Sci., 1999, vol. 34(Suppl.), p. 37.
Gibson, R.L. and Reimold, W.U., Thermal Metamorphic Signature of An Impact Event in the Vredefort Dome, South Africa, Geology, 1998, vol. 26, no.9, pp. 787–790.
Gibson, R.L., Reimold, W.U., and Stevens, G., Impact-Related Metamorphism in the Vredefort Dome, South Africa, in 29th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., 1998, Abstract #1360.
Gibson, R.L. and Reimold, W.U., The Metamorphic Finger-print of Large Impact Events: The Example of the Vre-defort Dome, South Africa, Met. Plan. Sci., 1999a, vol. 34(Suppl.), p. 42.
Gibson, R.L. and Reimold, W.U., The Significance of the Vredefort Dome for the Thermal and Structural Evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa, Mineral. Pertol., 1999b, vol. 66, pp. 5–23.
Gibson, R.L. and Jones, M.Q.W., Late Archean to Paleoproterozoic Geotherms in the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa: Constraints on the Thermal Evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, Basin Res., 2002, vol. 14, pp. 169–181.
Grajales-Nishimura, J.M., Cedillo-Pardo, E., Rosales-Dominguez, C., et al., Chicxulub Impact: The Origin of Reservoir and Seal Facies in the Southeastern Mexico Oil Fields, Geology, 2000, vol. 28, pp. 307–310.
Grieve, R.A.F., Robertson, P.B., and Dence, M.R., Constraints on the Formation of the Ring Impact Structures, in Multiring Basins, Schultz, P.H. and Merrill, R.B., Eds., New York: Pergamon, 1981, pp. 37–57.
Grieve, R.A.F., Stoffler, D., and Deutsch, A., The Sudbury Structure: Controversial or Misunderstood?, J. Geophys. Res., 1991, vol. 96, pp. 22753–22764.
Grieve, R.A.F. and Cintala, M.J., An Analysis of Differential Impact Melt-Crater Scaling and Implications for the Terrestrial Impact Record, Meteoritics, 1992, vol. 27, pp. 526–538.
Grieve, R.A.F. and Cintala, M.J., Planetary Differences in Impact Melting, Adv. Space Res., 1997, vol. 20, pp. 1551–1560.
Grieve, R. and Therriault, A., Vredefort, Sudbury, Chicxulub: Three of a Kind?, Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 2000, vol. 28, pp. 305–338.
Guillou, L., Mareschal, J.-C., Jaupart, C., et al., Heat Flow, Gravity and Structure of the Abitibi Belt, Superior Province, Canada: Implications for Mantle Heat Flow, Tectonophysics, 1994, vol. 122, pp. 103–123.
Gupta, S.C., Ahrens, T.J., and Yang, W., Shock Induced Vaporization of Anhydrite CaSO4 and Calcite CaCO3, in APS Meeting Abstracts, 1999.
Henkel, H. and Reimold, W.U., Geophysical Modeling and Reconstruction of the Vredefort Impact Structure, South Africa, Met. Plan. Sci., 1996, vol. 31, p. 59.
Hildebrand, A.R., Penfield, G.T., Kring, D.A., et al., Chicxulub Crater: A Possible Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Impact Crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Geology, 1991, vol. 19, pp. 867–871.
Ivanov, B.A., Bazilevskii, A.T., Krivchkov, V.P., et al., Impact Craters of Venus-Analysis of Venera 15 and 16 Data, J. Geophys. Res., 1986, vol. 91, pp. 413–430.
Ivanov, B.A., The Morphometry of Impact Craters on Venus, Astron. Vestn., 1989, vol. 23, no.1, pp. 39–49.
Ivanov, B.A., Nemchinov, I.V., Svetsov, V.A., et al., Impact Cratering on Venus: Physical and Mechanical Models, J. Geophys. Res. E, 1992, vol. 97, no.10, pp. 16167–16181.
Ivanov, B.A. and Ford, P.G., The Depths of the Largest Impact Craters on Venus, 24th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., 1993, pp. 689–690.
Ivanov, B.A., Badukov, D.D., Yakovlev, O.I., et al., Degassing of Sedimentary Rocks Due to Chicxulub Impact: Hydrocode and Physical Simulations, Geol. Soc. Spec. Pap., 1996, vol. 307, pp. 125–139.
Ivanov, B.A., Basilevsky, A.T., and Neukum, G., Atmospheric Entry of Large Meteoroids: Implication To Titan, Planet. Space Sci., 1997, vol. 45, pp. 993–1007.
Ivanov, B.A. and Deutsch, A., Sudbury Impact Event: Cratering Mechanics and Thermal History, in Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution II, Dressler, B., and Sharpton, V.L., Eds., Boulder: Geological Soc. Am., 1999, pp. 389–397.
Ivanov, B.A., Large Impact Crater Modeling: Chicxulub, Third International Conference on Large Meteorite Impacts, Nordlingen, Germany, 2003, Houston: Lunar Planet. Inst., 2003a, Abstract #4067; http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meet-ings/largeimpacts2003/pdf/4067.pdf.
Ivanov, B.A., Modification of ANEOS for Rocks in Compression, Impact Cratering: Bridging the Gap Between Modeling and Observations, February, LPI Contrib., no. 1155, 2003, Houston: Lunar Planet. Inst., 2003b, p. 40.
Ivanov, B., Multi-Ring Basins: Modeling Terrestrial Analogs, 40th Vernadsky/Brown Microsymposium on Comparative Planetology, Moscow, 2004, Moscow: Vernadsky Institute, 2004a, CD-ROM #30.
Ivanov, B.A., Heating of the Lithosphere during Meteorite Cratering, Astron. Vestn., 2004b, vol. 38, no.4, pp. 304–318 [Sol. Syst. Res. (Engl. Transl.), vol. 38, no. 4, p. 266–279].
Ivanov, B.A., Langenhorst, F., Deutsch, A., et al., Anhydrite EOS and Phase Diagram in Relation To Shock Decomposition, 35th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., 2004, Abstract #1489.
Ivanov, B.A., Shock Melting of Permafrost on Mars: Water Ice Multiphase Equation of State for Numerical Modeling and Its Testing, Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., 2005, Abstract #1232.
James, D.E. and Fouch, M.J., VanDecar J.C., et al., Tectospheric Structure Beneath Southern Africa, Geophys. Res. Lett., 2001, vol. 28, no.13, pp. 2485–2488.
Jaupart, C. and Mareschal, J.C., The Thermal Structure and Thickness of Continental Roots, Lithos, 1999, vol. 48, pp. 93–114.
Krogh, T.E., Davis, D.W., and Corfu, F., Precise of U-Pb Zir-con and Baddeleyite Ages for the Sudbury Area, in The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure, Pye, E.G., Naldrett, A.J., and Giblin, P.E., Eds., Ontario: Ontario Geological Survay, 1984, vol. 1, pp. 431–446.
Kuznetsov, N.M., Kinetics of Shock-Wave Phase Transformation of Quartz, in Udarnye volny i ekstremal'nye sostoyaniya veshchestva (Shock Waves and Extreme States of Material) Fortov, V.E., Al'tshuler, L.V., Trunin, R.F., and Funtikov, A.I., Eds., Moscow: Nauka, 2000, pp. 199–218.
Lana, C., Gibson, R.L., Kisters, A.F.M., et al., Archean Crustal Structure of the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa-Evidence from the Vredefort Dome, Tectonophysics, 2003a, vol. 206, pp. 133–144.
Lana, C., Gibson, R.L., and Reimold, W.U., Impact Tectonics in the Core of the Vredefort Dome, South Africa: Implications for Central Uplift Formation in Very Large Impact Structures, Met. Plan. Sci., 2003b, vol. 38, pp. 1093–1107.
Lana, C., Reimold, W.U., Gibson, R.L., et al., Nature of the Archean Midcrust in the Core of the Vredefort Dome, Central Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa 1, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 2004, vol. 68, pp. 623–642.
Landau, L. and Lifshits, E., Statisticheskaya fizika (Statistical Physics), Leningrad: Tekhniko-Teor. Literatura, 1951.
Langenhorst, F., Deutsch, A., Hornemann, U., et al., On the Shock Behaviour of Anhydrite: Experimental Results and Natural Observations, 34th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., 2003, Abstract #1638.
Masaitis, V.L., Mikhailov, M.V., and Selivanovskaya, T.V., Popigaiskii meteoritnyi krater (Popigai Meteorite Crater), Moscow: Nauka, 1975.
Masaitis, V.L., Danilin, A.N., Mashchak, M.S., et al., Geologiya astroblem (Geology of Astroblemes), Leningrad: Nedra, 1980.
Masaitis, V.L. and Raikhlin, A.I., The Popigai Crater Was Formed by the Impact of an Ordinary Chondrite, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1986, vol. 286, no.6, pp. 159–163.
Masaitis, V.L., Impactites from Popigai Crater, in Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution, Grieve, R.A.F., Sharpton, V.L., and Dressler, B.O., Eds., Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 1994, vol. 293, pp. 153–162.
Masaitis, V.L., Mashchak, M.S., and Raikhlin, A.I., et. al., Almazonosnye impaktity Popigaiskoi astroblemy (Diamond-Bearing Impactites of the Popigai Astrobleme), St. Petersburg: VSEGEYa, 1998.
Masaitis, V.L., Popigai Crater: Origin and Distribution of Diamond-Bearing Impactites, Met. Plan. Sci., 1998, vol. 33, pp. 349–359.
Masaitis, V.L., Mashchak, M.S., and Naumov, M.V., Original Diameter and Depth of Erosion of the Popigai Impact Crater, Russia, Third International Conference on Large Meteorite Impacts, Nordlingen, Germany, 2003, Houston: Lunar Planet. Inst., 2003, Abstract #4039; http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/largeimpacts2003/pdf/4039.pdf.
McKinnon, W.B., Zahnle, K.J., Ivanov, B.A., et al., Cratering on Venus: Models and Observations, in Venus II, Bougher, S.W., Hunten, D.M., and Phillips, R.J., Eds., Tuscon: Univ. Arizona Press, 1997, pp. 969–1014.
Melosh, H.J., Ryan, E.V., and Asphaug, E., Dynamic Fragmentation in Impacts: Hydrocode Simulation of Laboratory Impacts, J. Geophys. Res., 1992, vol. 97, pp. 14735–14759.
Melosh, H.J., Impact Cratering–A Geologic Process, New York: Oxford, 1989. Translated under the title Udarnye kratery–geologicheskii protsess, Moscow: Mir, 1994.
Melosh, H.J. and Ivanov, B.A., Impact Crater Collapse, Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 1999, vol. 27, pp. 385–415.
Melosh, H.J., A New and Improved Equation of State for Impact Studies, 31th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., Houston, 2000, Abstract #1903.
Milkereit, B., Green, A., Wu, J., et al., Integrated Seismic and Borehole Geophysical Study of the Sudbury Igneous Complex, Geophys. Res. Lett., 1994a, vol. 21, pp. 931–934.
Milkereit, B., White, D.J., and Green, A.G., Towards an Improved Seismic Imaging Technique for Crustal Structures: The Lithoprobe Sudbury Experiment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 1994b, vol. 21, pp. 927–930.
Morgan, J. and Warner, M., and the Chicxulub Working Group. Size and Morphology of the Chicxulub Impact Crater, Nature, 1997, vol. 390, pp. 472–476.
Morgan, J.V., Warner, M.R., Collins, G.S., et al., Peak-Ring Formation in Large Impact Craters: Geophysical Constraints from Chicxulub, Tectonophysics, 2000, vol. 183, pp. 347–354.
Moser, D.E., Flowers, R.M., and Hart, R.J., Birth of the Kaapvaal Tectosphere 3.08 Billion Years Ago, Science, 2001, vol. 291, no.5503, pp. 465–468.
Naldrett, A.J and Hewins, R.H, The Main Mass of the Sudbury Igneous Complex, in The Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure: Ontario Geological Survey Special Pye, E.G., Naldrett, A.J., and Giblin, P.E., Eds., Ontario: Ministry of Natural Resources of Canada, 1984, vol. 1, pp. 235–251.
Nguuri, T.K., Gore, J., James, D.E., et al., Crustal Structure Beneath Southern Africa and Its Implications for the Formation and Evolution of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons, Geophys. Res. Lett., 2001, vol. 28, no.13, pp. 2502–2504.
Nikolaeva, O.V., Geochemistry of the Venera 8 Material Demonstrates the Presence of Continental Crust on Venus, Earth, Moon, and Planets, 1990, vol. 50, pp. 329–341.
O'Keefe, J.D. and Ahrens, T.J., Complex Craters: Relationship of Stratigraphy and Rings To Impact Conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 1999, vol. 104, pp. 27091–27104.
Papadopoulos, G.A. and Plessa, A., Magnitude-Distance Relations for Earthquake-Induced Landslides in Greece, Engineering Geology, 2000, vol. 58, no.3–4, pp. 377–386.
Pierazzo, E., Vickery, A.M., and Melosh, H.J., A Reevaluation of Impact Melt Production, Icarus, 1997, vol. 127, pp. 408–423.
Pierazzo, E., Kring, D.A., and Melosh, H.J., Hydrocode Simulation of the Chicxulub Impact Event and the Production of Climatically Active Gases, J. Geophys. Res., 1998, vol. 103, pp. 28607–28625.
Pierazzo, E. and Melosh, H.J., Hydrocode Modeling of Chicxulub as An Oblique Impact Event, Tectonophysics, 1999, vol. 165, pp. 163–176.
Pike, R.J., Control of Crater Morphology by Gravity and Target Type-Mars, Earth, Moon, 11th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf., New York: Pergamon, 1980, pp. 2159–2189.
Pilkington, M. and Hildebrand, A.R., Three-Dimensional Magnetic Imaging of the Chicxulub Crater, J. Geophys., Res., 2000, vol. 105, pp. 23479–23492.
Pope, K.O., Baines, K.H., Ocampo, A.C., et al., Impact Winter and the Cretaceous/Tertiary Extinctions: Results of a Chicxulub Asteroid Impact Model, Tectonophysics, 1994, vol. 128, pp. 719–725.
Pope, K.O., Baines, K.H., Ocampo, A.C., et al., Energy, Volatile Production, and Climatic Effects of the Chicxulub Cretaceous/Tertiary Impact, J. Geophys. Res., 1997, vol. 102, pp. 21645–21664.
Reimold, W.U. and Gibson, R.L., Geology and Evolution of the Vredefort Impact Structure, South Africa, Afr. J. Earth Sci., 1996, vol. 23, no.2, pp. 125–162.
Ricoy, V., The Cantarell Breccia System, Southern Gulf Of Mexico: Structural Evolution and Support for An Origin Related To the Chixculub Meteorite Impact, EGS-AGU-EUG Joint Assembly, Nice, France, 2003, Abstract #13339.
Roest, W.R. and Pilkington, M., Restoring Post-Impact Deformation at Sudbury: A Circular Argument, Geophys. Res. Lett., 1994, vol. 21, pp. 959–962.
Rozen, O.M., Bibikova, E.V., and Zhuravlev, A.B., Early Crust of the Anabar Shield: Age and Formation Models, in Rannyaya kora Zemli: sostav i vozrast (Early Crust of the Earth: Composition and Age), Mergasov, G.G., Ed., Moscow: Nauka, 1991, pp. 199–244.
Rosen, O.M., Condie, K.C., Natapov, L.M., et al., Archean and Early Proterozoic Evolution of the Siberian Craton: A Preliminary Assessment, in Developments in Precambrian Geology, Windley, B.F., Ed., Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994, pp. 411–459.
Schmidt, R.M. and Housen, K.R., Some Recent Advances in the Scaling of Impact and Explosion Cratering, Int. J. Impact Eng., 1987, vol. 5, pp. 543–560.
Shanks, W.S. and Schwerdtner, W.M., Crude Quantitative Estimates of the Original Northwest-Southwest Dimension of the Sudbury Structure, South Central Canadian Shield, Can. J. Earth Sci., 1991, vol. 28, pp. 1677–1686.
Spray, J.G., Butler, R.F., and Thomson, L.M., Tectonic Influences on the Morphometry of the Sudbury Impact Structure: Implications for Terrestrial Cratering and Modeling, MAPS, 2004, vol. 31, no.2, pp. 287–301.
Stevens, G., Armstrong, R.A., and Gibson, R.L., Pre-and Postimpact Metamorphism in the Core of the Vredefort Dome: Clues To Crustal Response at a Massive Meteorite Strike, Met. Plan. Sci., 1999, vol. 34(Suppl.), p. 112.
Stoffler, D. and Langenhorst, F., Shock Metamorphism of Quartz in Nature and Experiment: I. Basic Observation and Theory, Meteoritics, 1994, vol. 29, pp. 155–181.
Stoffler, D., Artemieva, N.A., Ivanov, B.F., et al., Origin and Emplacement of the Impact Formations at Chicxulub, Mexico, As Revealed by the ICDP Deep Drilling at Yaxcopoil-1 and by Numerical Modeling, Met. Plan. Sci., 2004, vol. 39, no.7, pp. 1035–1067.
Stroenie zemnoi kory Anabarskogo shchita (Structure of the Terrestrial Crust of the Anabar Shield), Moralev, V.M., Ed., Moscow: Nauka, 1986.
Surkov, Y.A. and Barsukov, V.L., Composition, Structure and Properties of Venus Rocks, Adv. in Space Res, 1985, vol. 5, pp. 17–29.
Swisher, C.C., Grajales-Nishimura, J.M., Montanari, A., et al., Coeval 40Ar/39Ar Ages of 65.0 Million Years Ago from Chicxulub Crater Melt Rock and Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Tektites, Science, 1992, vol. 257, pp. 954–958.
Therriault, A.M., Grieve, R.A.F., and Reimold, W.U., Original Size of the Vredefort Structure: Implications for the Geological Evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, Met. Plan. Sci., 1997, vol. 32, pp. 71–77.
Thompson, S.L. and Lauson, H.S., Improvements in the Chart-D radiation hydrodynamic code III: Revised analytical equation of state, Albuquerque: Sandia Laboratories, 1972, SC-RR-71 0714.
Turtle, E.P. and Pierazzo, E., Constraints on the Size of the Vredefort Impact Crater from Numerical Modeling, Met. Plan. Sci., 1998, vol. 33, pp. 483–490.
Turtle, E.P., Pierazzo, E., and O'Brien, D.P., Numerical Modeling of Impact Heating and Cooling of the Vredefort Impact Structure, Met. Plan. Sci., 2003, vol. 38, pp. 293–303.
Wieland, F., Gibson, R.L., Reimold, W.U., et al., Structural Evolution of the Central Uplift of the Vredefort Impact Structure, South Africa, Met. Plan. Sci., 2003, vol. 38(Suppl.), p. 5027.
Wieland, F. and Reimold, W.U., Field and Laboratory Studies on Shatter Cones in the Vredefort Dome, South Africa, and Their Genesis, Met. Plan. Sci., 2003, vol. 38(Suppl.), p. 5016.
Wu, J., Milkereit, B., and Boerner, D.E., Seismic Imaging of the Enigmatic Sudbury Structure, J. Geophys. Res., 1995, vol. 100, pp. 4117–4130.
Wunnemann, K. and Ivanov, B.A., Numerical Modelling of the Impact Crater Depth-Diameter Dependence in An Acoustically Fluidized Target, Planet. Space Sci., 2003, vol. 51, pp. 831–845.
Zharkov, V.N. and Kalinin, V.A., Uravneniya sostoyaniya tverdykh tel pri vysokikh davleniyakh i temperaturakh, Moscow: Nauka, 1968. Translated under the title Equations of State for Solids at High Pressures and Temperatures, New York: Consultants Bureau, 1971.
Zeldovich, Ya.B. and Raizer, Yu.P., Fizika Udarnykh Voln i Vysokotemperaturnykh Gidrodinamicheskikh Yavlenii, Moscow: Nauka, 1966. Translated under the title Physics of Shock Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena, New York: Academic Press, 1967.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
__________
Translated from Astronomicheskii Vestnik, Vol. 39, No. 5, 2005, pp. 426–456.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Ivanov.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ivanov, B.A. Numerical Modeling of the Largest Terrestrial Meteorite Craters. Sol Syst Res 39, 381–409 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11208-005-0051-0
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11208-005-0051-0