Abstract
The argument is presented that motivation is equated to energy mobilization, and that the mechanism involved in all such instances of arousal is a discrepancy-detecting and -reducing mechanism. Motives are specific categories of discrepancy but they operate through a common arousal system. This system, further, may be coopted into (integrated into) processes involving social comparison, relative deprivation, discrepancies with respect to ego-involved persons and objects, and industrial, social, and political motives. While biological homeostasis provides the basic CNS system, other forms of discrepancy-triggered energy arousal must be recognized as important. Hedonism and theories of curiosity, as well as other similar factors, can be subsumed under discrepancy theory.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Adams, J. S. Toward an understanding of inequity.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1963,67 422–436.
Adolph, E. F. The internal environment and behavior. III. Water content.American Journal of Psychiatry 1941,97 1365–1373.
Allport, G. W.Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1961.
Anderson, E. E. The interrelationships of drives in the male albino rat. II. Intercorrelations between 47 measures of drives and of learning.Comparative Psychology Monographs 1938,14 (6), 1–119.
Antelman, S. M., & Szechtman, H. Tail pinch induces eating in sated rats which appears to depend on nigrostriatal dopamine.Science 1975,189 (August 29), 731–733.
Ax, A. F. Invited commentary. In M. H. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.),Psychological stress. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. Pp. 37–39.
Badia, P., Suter, S., & Lewis, P. Preference for warned shock: Information and/or preparation.Psychological Reports 1967,20 271–274.
Barach, A. L. Homeostasis: A physiologic and psychologic function in man.Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 1974,17 522–528.
Bernard, C.Leçons sur les propriétés physiologiques et les alterations pathologiques des liquides de l'organisme. Paris: Ballière, 1859.
Bolles, R. C.Theory of motivation. New York: Harper & Row, 1967.
Cabanac, M. Physiological role of pleasure.Science 1971,173 (September 17), 1103–1107.
Cannon, W. B.The wisdom of the body (Rev. ed.). New York: Norton, 1939.
Carlsson, S., & Larsson, K. Self-stimulation and mating behavior in the male rat.Göteborg Psychological Reports 1974,4 (5). University of Göteborg, Sweden.
Cattell, R. B.Personality and motivation structure and measurement. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1957.
Cofer, C. N., & Appley, M. H.Motivation: Theory and research. New York: Wiley, 1964.
Coons, E. E., & Cruce, J. A. F. Lateral hypothalamus: Food current intensity in maintaining self-stimulation of hunger.Science 1968,159 (March 8), 1117–1119.
Duffy, E. The concept of energy mobilization.Psychological Review 1951,58 30–40.
Easton, L. D., & Guddat, K. H.Writings of the young Marx on philosophy and society. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967.
Festinger, L. A theory of social comparison processes.Human Relations 1954,7 117–140.
Festinger, L.A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1957.
Freud, S.Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. London: Hogarth, 1954.
Fuller, J. L.Motivation: A biological perspective. New York: Random House, 1962.
Hebb, D. O.Organization of behavior. New York: Wiley, 1949.
Helson, H.Adaptation-level theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.
Hoffman, H. S., Eiserer, L. A., Ratner, A. M., & Pickering, V. L. Development of distress vocalization during withdrawal of an imprinting stimulus.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1974,86 563–568.
Hull, C. L.Essentials of behavior. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951.
Hunt, J. McV.Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Johnston, R. E., & Zahorik, D. M. Taste aversions to sexual attractants.Science 1975,189 (September 12), 893–894.
Katzell, R. A. Personal values, job satisfaction, and job behavior. In H. Borow (Ed.),Man in a world at work. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1964.
Kosterlitz, H. W., & Hughes, J. Some thoughts on the significance of enkephalin, the endogenous ligand.Life Sciences 1975,17 (1), 91–96.
Kuo, Z. Y.The dynamics of behavior development: An epigenetic view. New York: Random House, 1967.
Lacey, J. I. Individual differences in somatic response patterns.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1950,43 338–350.
Lacey, J. I. Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions of activation theory. In M. H. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.),Psychological stress. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967.
Lacey, J. I., & Lacey, B. C. Verification and extension of the principle of autonomic response stereotypy.American Journal of Psychology 1958,71 50–73.
Lawson, E. D., & Stagner, R. Group pressure, attitude change, and autonomic involvement.Journal of Social Psychology 1957,45 299–312.
Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. The short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 1964,69 195–205.
Lewin, K.Dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers. (D. K. Adams & K. E. Zener, Trans.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935.
Lillie, R. S.Protoplasmic action and nervous action. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1923.
Lindsley, D. B. Psychological phenomena and the electroencephalogram.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1952,4 443–456.
Lindsley, D. B. Psychophysiology and emotion. In M. R. Jones (Ed.),Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1957. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1957. Pp. 44–105.
London, H., Schubert, D. S., & Washburn, D. Increase of autonomic arousal by boredom.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1972,80 29–36.
Madsen, K. B.Theories of motivation. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1968.
Maslow, A. H.Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L.The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953.
McBain, W. N. Noise, the “arousal hypothesis,” and monotonous work.JOurnal of Applied Psychology 1961,45 309–317.
McHugh, P. R., Moran, T. H., & Barton, G. N. Satiety: A graded behavioral phenomenon regulating caloric intake.Science 1975,189 (October 10), 165–167.
Menninger, K.The vital balance. New York: Viking, 1963.
Meyer, D. R. The stability of human gustatory sensitivity during changes in time of food deprivation.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1952,45 373–376.
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H.,Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, 1960.
Murray, H. A.Explorations in personality. New York: Wiley, 1938.
Nicholaidis, S., & Rowland, N. Long-term self-intravenous “drinking” in the rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1974,87 1–15.
Olds, J., & Milner, P. Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1954,47 419–427.
Porter, L. W. Job attitudes in management: 1. Perceived deficiencies in need fulfillment as a function of job level.Journal of Applied Psychology 1962,46 375–384.
Pribram, K. H. The neuropsychology of Sigmund Freud. In A. J. Bachrach (Ed.),Experimental foundations of clinical psychology. New York: Basic Books, 1962.
Pribram, K. H.Languages of the brain. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Provence, S., & Lipton, R. C.Infants in institutions. New York: International Universities Press, 1962.
Raup, R. B.Complacency: The foundation of human behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1925.
Schwartz, G. E. Biofeedback as therapy: Some theoretical and practical issues.American Psychologist 1973,28 666–673.
Sokolov, E. N. Higher nervous functions: The orienting reflex.Annual Review of Physiology 1963,25 545–580.
Stagner, R. Homeostasis as a unifying concept in personality theory.Psychological Review 1951,58 5–17.
Stagner, R., & Solley, C. M., Jr.Basic psychology: A perceptual-homeostatic approach. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
Valenstein, E. S., Cox, V. C., & Kakolewski, J. W. Modification of motivated behavior elicited by electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus.Science 1968,159 (March 8), 1119–1121.
Walker, N. Freud and homeostasis.British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 1956,7 61–72.
Weil, J. L.A neurophysiological model of emotional and intentional behavior. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas, 1974.
Young, J. Z.An introduction to the study of man. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Young, P. T.Motivation and emotion. New York: Wiley, 1961.
Young, P. T., & Chaplin, J. P. Studies of food preference, appetite and dietary habit: III. Palatability and appetite in relation to bodily need.Comparative Psychology Monographs 1945,18 1–45.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
A portion of this paper was prepared with the support of NIMH Fellowship 1-F03-MH-54564-01.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stagner, R. Homeostasis, discrepancy, dissonance. Motiv Emot 1, 103–138 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00998515
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00998515