Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Thermal Constraints on Clay Growth in Fault Gouge and Their Relationship with Fault-Zone Evolution and Hydrothermal Alteration: Case Study of Gouges in the Kojaku Granite, Central Japan

  • Published:
Clays and Clay Minerals

Abstract

In order to elucidate the process of mineralization of clay minerals in fault gouge and its spatial-temporal relationship with fault-zone evolution and hydrothermal alteration, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and K-Ar dating were performed on clay samples from the Kojaku Granite of central Japan, including fault gouge along an active fault. The area studied is suitable for understanding thermal constraints on clay mineralization because the wall rock is homogeneous and its thermal history well defined. The results from XRD indicated that the clay minerals in the gouge samples are dioctahedral smectite, kaolinite, and 1Md illite, whereas clay fillings in fractures and joints in the intact granite (clay vein) include 2M1 illite in addition to dioctahedral smectite and 1Md illite. The evolution of clay mineralization is reconstructed as follows: (1) high-temperature hydrothermal alteration of feldspar and biotite produced 2M1 illite in clay veins; and (2) alteration accompanied by shearing at a lower temperature resulted in the formation of 1Md illite in the gouges. This scenario is consistent with the cooling history of the granite constrained by fission-track, U-Pb, and K-Ar dating methods. K-Ar dating of the clay samples separated into multiple particle-size fractions indicated that the low-temperature alteration leading to the production of 1Md illite was dated to ~40 Ma. Based on the cooling history of the granite, the 1Md illite formed at temperatures of 60–120°C. This temperature range was at the lower limit of the range reported in previous studies for faults. The spatial and geometrical relation of the faults studied and their K-Ar ages infer evolution which can be described as extensive development of small-scale faults at ~40 Ma followed by coalescence of the small-scale faults to form a larger, recently reactivated, active fault. The K-Ar ages have not been reset by the recent near-surface fault activity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abad, I., Nieto, F., Peacor, D.R., and Velilla, N. (2003) Prograde and retrograde diagenetic and metamorphic evolution in metapelitic rocks of Sierra Espuña (Spain). Clay Minerals, 38, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aplin, A.C., Matenaar, I.F., McCarty, D.K., and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2006) Influence of mechanical compaction and clay mineral diagenesis on the microfabric and porescale properties of deep-water Gulf of Mexico mudstones. Clays and Clay Minerals, 54, 500–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, S.W. (1980) Structures of layer silicates. Pp. 1–124 in: Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and their X-ray Identification (G.W. Brindley and G. Brown, editors). Monograph 5, Mineralogical Society, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, S.W. (1984) Crystal chemistry of the true micas. Pp. 13–60 in: Micas (S.W. Bailey, editor). Reviews in Mineralogy, 13, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington DC.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bartier, D., Ledésert, B., Clauer, N., Meunier, A., Liewig, N., Morvan, G., and Addad, A. (2008) Hydrothermal alteration of the Soultz-sous-Forêts granite (Hot Fractured Rock geothermal exchanger) into a tosudite and illite assemblage. European Journal of Mineralogy, 20, 131–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bense, F.A., Wemmer, K., Lóbens, S., and Siegesmund, S. (2014) Fault gouge analysis: K-Ar illite dating, clay mineralogy and tectonic significance — a study from the Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 103, 189–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonhomme, M.G., Thuizat, R., Pinault, Y., Clauer, N., Wendling, R., and Winkler, R. (1975) Méthode de datation potassium—argon. Appareillage et technique. Notes Techniques de l’Institut de Geologie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France, 53 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodie, K., Fettes, D., Harte, B., and Schmid, R. (2007) A systematic nomenclature for metamorphic rocks: 3. Structuraltermsincludingfaultrockterms. Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks: https://doi.org/www.bgs.ac.uk/SCMR/docs/papers/paper_3.pdf

  • Clauer, N. and Liewig, N. (2013) Episodic and simultaneous illitization in oil-bearing Brent Group and Fulmar Formation sandstones from the northern and southern North Sea based on illite K-Ar dating. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 97, 2149–2171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, S.F. (2007) Structural and isotopic constraints on fluid flow regimes and fluid pathways during upper crustal deformation: an example from the Taemas area of the Lachlan Orogen, SE Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B08208, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JB004734.

  • Eberl, D.D. (1993) Three zones for illite formation during burial diagenesis and metamorphism. Clays and Clay Minerals, 41, 26–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faulkner, D.R. and Rutter, E.H. (2001) Can the maintenance of overpressured fluids in large strike-slip fault zones explain their apparent weakness? Geology, 29, 503–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fukui Prefecture (2010) Geological Map of Fukui Prefecture and its Explanatory Note. Fukui Prefectural Public Corporation of Construction Technology, Japan, 173 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grathoff, G.H. and Moore, D.M. (1996) Illite polytype quantification using WILDFIRE© calculated X-ray diffraction patterns. Clays and Clay Minerals, 44, 835–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines, S.H. and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2008) Clay quantification and Ar-Ar dating of synthetic and natural gouge: Application to the Miocene Sierra Mazatán detachment fault, Sonora, Mexico. Journal of Structural Geology, 30, 525–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines, S.H. and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2012) Patterns of mineral transformations in clay gouge, with examples from low-angle normal fault rocks in the western USA. Journal of Structural Geology, 43, 2–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines, S.H., van der Pluijm, B.A., Ikari, M.J., Saffer, D.M., and Marone, C. (2009) Clay fabric intensity in natural and artificial fault gouges: Implications for brittle fault zone processes and sedimentary basin clay fabric evolution. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, B05406, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JB005866.

  • Hunziker, J.C., Frey, M., Clauer, N., Dallmeyer, R.D., Friedrichsen, H., Flehmig, W., Hochstrasser, K., Roggwiler, P., and Schwander, H. (1986) The evolution of illite to muscovite: mineralogical and isotopic data from the Glarus Alps, Switzerland. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 92, 157–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikari, M.J., Saffer, D.M., and Marone, C. (2009) Frictional and hydrologic properties of clay-rich fault gouge. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, ppB05409, doi: rs10.1029/2008JB006089 DOI }.

  • Inoue, A. (1995) Formation of clay minerals in hydrothermal environments. Pp. 269–329 in: Origin and Mineralogy of Clays (B. Velde, editor). Springer, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M.L. (2005) Soil Chemical Analysis. Advanced Course, revised 2nd edition. Parallel Press, University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, 930 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Japan Atomic Energy Agency (2010) Report on the assessment of seismic safety of Monju prototype fast-breeder reactor based on “Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities (New Guideline, Full Revised at 2006)” (revised version in 2010). https://doi.org/www.jaea.go.jp/04/turuga/jturuga/press/2010/02/ p100202.pdf (in Japanese).

  • Kitagawa, R. and Nishido, H. (1994) Orientation analysis and formation ages of fractures filled with clay minerals (clay veins) in Hiroshima and Shimane Prefectures, Southwest Japan. Journal of Japan Society of Engineering Geology, 35, 60–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitagawa, R., Kakitani, S., Takeno, S., and Nishida, Y. (1981) Topographical examination and genesis of clay veins found in the Kumogi granite mass in Shimane Prefecture, southwest Japan. Journal of the Japanese Association of Mineralogists, Petrologists and Economic Geologists, 76, 262–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurimoto, C., Naito, K., Sugiyama, Y., and Nakae, S. (1999) Geology of the Tsuruga District with Geological Sheet Map at 1:50,000. Geological Survey of Japan, 73 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laidlaw, I. and Steinmetz, M. (2005) Introduction to differential sedimentation. Pp. 270–290 in: Analytical Ultracentrifugation: Techniques and Methods (D.B. Scott, S.E. Harding, and A.J. Rowe, editors). Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liewig, N., Clauer, N., and Sommer, F. (1987) Rb-Sr and K-Ar dating of clay diagenesis in Jurassic sandstone oil reservoir, North Sea. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 71, 1467–1474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, A. (1996) Injection veins of crushing-originated pseudotachylyte and fault gouge formed during seismic faulting. Engineering Geology, 43, 213–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, A., Shimamoto, T., Maruyama, T., Sigetomi, M., Miyata, T., Takemura, K., Tanaka, H., Uda, S., and Murata, A. (2001) Comparative study of cataclastic rocks from a drill core and outcrops of the Nojima fault zone on Awaji Island, Japan. Island Arc, 10, 368–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto, A. (1989) Improvement for determination of potassium in K-Ar dating. Bulletin of Geological Survey of Japan, 40, 65–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto, A., Uto, K., and Shibata, K. (1989) K-Ar dating by peak comparison method — New technique applicable to rocks younger than 0.5 Ma. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Japan, 40, 565–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadyen, P. and Fairhurst, D. (1993) High-resolution particle size analysis from nanometres to microns. Clay Minerals, 28, 531–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, D.M. and Reynolds, R.C. (1997) X-ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, New York, 378 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieto, F., Velilla, N., Peacor, D.R., and Huertas, M.O. (1994) Regional retrograde alteration of sub-greenschist facies chlorite to smectite. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 115, 243–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishimoto, S. and Yoshida, H. (2010) Hydrothermal alteration of deep fractured granite: Effects of dissolution and precipitation. Lithos, 115, 153–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niwa, M., Kurosawa, H., and Ishimaru, T. (2011) Spatial distribution and characteristics of fracture zones near a long-lived active fault: A field-based study for understanding changes in underground environment caused by long-term fault activities. Engineering Geology, 119, 31–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Numelin, T., Marone, C., and Kirby, E. (2007) Frictional properties of natural fault gouge from a low-angle normal fault, Panamint Valley, California. Tectonics, 26, TC2004, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2005TC001916.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Otsuki, K., Monzawa, N., and Nagase, T. (2003) Fluidization and melting of fault gouge during seismic slip: identification in the Nojima fault zone and implications for focal earthquake mechanisms. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, B4, 2192, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB001711.

  • Pollastro, R.M. (1993) Considerations and applications of the illite/smectite geothermometer hydrocarbon-bearing rocks of Miocene to Mississippian age. Clays and Clay Minerals, 41, 119–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puretz, J. (1979) Centrifugal particle size analysis and the Joyce—Loebl disc centrifuge. Pp. 77–88 in: Particle Size Analysis (J.D. Stockham and E.G. Fochtman, editors). Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.

  • Reynolds, R.C. (1980) Interstratified clay minerals. Pp. 249–304 in: Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and their X-ray Identification (G.W. Brindley and G. Brown, editors). Monograph 5, Mineralogical Society, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, R.C. Jr. (1993) WILDFIRE — A computer program for the calculation of three-dimensional powder X-ray diffraction patterns for mica polytypes and their disordered variations. Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.

  • Robertson, I.D.M. and Eggleton, R.A. (1991) Weathering of granitic muscovite to kaolinite and halloysite and of plagioclase-derived kaolinite to halloysite. Clays and Clay Minerals, 39, 113–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, S. and Morrison, E.D. (1988) Colloidal Systems and Interfaces. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 440 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, C.D., Kirkpatrick, J.D., and Brodsky, E.E. (2012) Fault rock injections record paleo-earthquakes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 335-336, 154–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saffer, D.M. and Marone, C. (2003) Comparison of smectiteand illite-rich gouge frictional properties: Application to the updip limit of the seismogenic zone along subduction megathrusts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 215, 219–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawada, K., Yoshida, G., and Fujii, R. (1997) Granitic masses around Lake Biwa, southwest Japan: the Koujyaku granite pluton. Earth Science (Chikyu Kagaku), 51, 401–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schleicher, A.M., Warr, L.N., Kober, B., Laverret, E., and Clauer, N. (2006a) Episodic mineralization of hydrothermal illite in the Soultz-sous-Forêts granite (Upper Rhine Graben, France). Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 152, 349–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schleicher, A.M., Warr, L.N., and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2006b) Fluid focusing and back-reactions in the uplifted shoulder of the Rhine rift system: a clay mineral study along the Schauenburg Fault zone (Heidelberg, Germany). International Journal of Earth Sciences, 95, 19–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solum, J.G. and van der Pluijm, B.A. (2004) Phyllosilicate mineral assemblages of the SAFOD Pilot Hole and comparison with an exhumed segment of the San Andreas Fault System. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L15S19, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL019909.

  • Solum J.G. and van der Pluijm B.A. (2007) Reconstructing the Snake River-Hoback River Canyon section of the Wyoming thrust belt through direct dating of clay-rich fault rocks. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 433, 183–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solum, J.G., van der Pluijm, B.A., Peacor, D.R., and Warr, L.N. (2003) Influence of phyllosilicate mineral assemblages, fabrics, and fluids on the behavior of the Punchbowl fault, southern California. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, B5, 2233, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001858.

  • Solum, J.G., van der Pluijm, B.A., and Peacor, D.R. (2005) Neocrystallization, fabrics and age of clay minerals from an exposure of the Moab Fault, Utah. Journal of Structural Geology, 27, 1563–1576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solum, J.G., Davatzes, N.C., and Lockner, D.A. (2010) Faultrelated clay authigenesis along the Moab Fault: Implications for calculations of fault rock composition and mechanical and hydrologic fault zone properties. Journal of Structural Geology, 32, 1899–1911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Środoń, J. and Eberl, D.D. (1984) Illite. Pp. 495–544 in: Micas (S.W. Bailey, editor). Reviews in Mineralogy, 13, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington DC.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steiger, R.H. and Jáger, E. (1977) Subcommission on geochronology: convention on the use of decay constants in geo- and cosmochronology. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 36, 359–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sudo, M., Tagami, T., Sato, K., Hasebe, N., and Nishimura, S. (1996) Calibration of a new Ar analytical system for the KAr dating method and analytical results of K-Ar age known samples. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kyoto University, Series of Geology and Mineralogy, 58, 21–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudo, M., Uto, K., Anno, K., Ishizuka, O., and Uchiumi, S. (1998) SORI93 biotite: A new mineral standard for K-Ar dating. Geochemical Journal, 32, 49–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sueoka, S., Umeda, K., Yasue, K., Niwa, M., Shimada, K., Ishimaru, T., Danhara, T., Iwano, H., and Yagi, K. (2016) Cooling and denudation history of the Tsuruga body of the Kójaku granite, southwest Japan, constrained from multi-system thermochronology. Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi), 125, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surdam, R.C., Crossey, L.J., Hagen, E.S., and Heasler, H.P. (1989) Organic-inorganic interactions and sandstone diagenesis. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 73, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takaoka, N. (1989) Problems in the K-Ar dating of Quaternary volcanic rocks younger than 1 Ma. Mass Spectrometry, 37, 343–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, A., Yano, Y., and Sasada, M. (2004) Geothermal gradient data in and around Japan. Digital Geoscience Map DGM P-5, Geological Survey of Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C.B. and Jackson, M.L. (1947) Monographs of sedimentation times for soil particles under gravity or centrifugal acceleration. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings, 12, 60–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turpault, M.P., Berger, G., and Meunier, A. (1992) Dissolution-precipitation processes induced by hot water circulation in fractured granite. Part 1. Wall-rock alteration and vein deposit processes. European Journal of Mineralogy, 4, 1457–1475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velde, B. (1965) Experimental determination of muscovite polymorph stabilities. American Mineralogist, 50, 436–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrolijk, P. and van der Pluijm, B.A. (1999) Clay gouge. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 1039–1048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe, T. (1988) The structural model of illite/smectite interstratified mineral and the diagram for its identification. Clay Science, 7, 97–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, C.E. (1989) Clays, Muds, and Shales. Developments in Sedimentology, 44, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 818 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J.W., van Holde, K.E., Baldwin, R.L., and Fujita, H. (1958) The theory of sedimentation analysis. Chemical Reviews, 58, 715–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson, J.P., Lunn, R.J., and Shipton, Z.K. (2007) Simulating spatial and temporal evolution of multiple wing cracks around faults in crystalline basement rocks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B08408, doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2006JB004815.

  • Wintsch, R.P., Christoffersen, R. and Kronenberg, A.K. (1995) Fluid-rock reaction weakening of fault zones. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100, 13021–13032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, Y., van der Pluijm, B.A., and Peacor, D.R. (2001) Deformation microfabrics of clay gouge, Lewis Thrust, Canada: a case for fault weakening from clay transformation. Pp. 103–112 in: The Nature and Tectonic Significance of Fault Zone Weakening (R.E. Holdsworth, R.A. Strachan, J.F. Magloughlin, and R.J. Knipe, editors). Special Publications, 186, Geological Society, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamasaki, S., Zwingmann, H., Yamada, K., Tagami, T., and Umeda, K. (2013) Constraining the timing of brittle deformation and faulting in the Toki granite, central Japan. Chemical Geology, 351, 168–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, H. and Eugster, H. (1955) Synthetic and natural muscovites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 8, 225–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, G., Peacor, D.R., and McDowell, D. (1999) “Retrograde diagenesis” of clay minerals in the Precambrian Freda Sandstone, Wisconsin. Clays and Clay Minerals, 47, 199–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zwingmann, H. and Manckeltow, N. (2004) Timing of Alpine fault gouges. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 223, 415–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwingmann, H., Manckeltow, N., Antognini, M., and Lucchini, R. (2010a) Dating of shallow faults: New constraints from the AlpTransit tunnel site (Switzerland). Geology, 38, 487–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwingmann, H., Yamada, K., and Tagami, T. (2010b) Timing of brittle deformation within the Nojima fault zone, Japan. Chemical Geology, 275, 176–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Toki Research Institute of Isotope Geology and Geochronology, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Toki, Gifu, 509-5102, Japan

    Masakazu Niwa, Hajimu Tamura, Kenji Shibata, Ken-Ichi Yasue & Koji Umeda

  2. Monju Project Management and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tsuruga, Fukui, 919-1279, Japan

    Koji Shimada, Shigeru Sueoka & Tsuneari Ishimaru

Authors
  1. Masakazu Niwa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Koji Shimada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hajimu Tamura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kenji Shibata
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Shigeru Sueoka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ken-Ichi Yasue
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Tsuneari Ishimaru
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Koji Umeda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Masakazu Niwa.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Niwa, M., Shimada, K., Tamura, H. et al. Thermal Constraints on Clay Growth in Fault Gouge and Their Relationship with Fault-Zone Evolution and Hydrothermal Alteration: Case Study of Gouges in the Kojaku Granite, Central Japan. Clays Clay Miner. 64, 86–107 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2016.0640202

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2016.0640202

Key Words

Search

Navigation