Introduction

Climate change and food security are complex issues that span political boundaries [27, 44] report on the state of food security and nutrition in the world has raised doubts about the ambitious campaign to end hunger, food insecurity, and all forms of malnutrition (Sustainable development goal targets 2.1 and 2.2), expected to be achieved by 2030 [27]. The current trajectory in other critical areas, such as poverty (Sustainable development goal (1) and hunger (Sustainable development goal (2), indicates a troubling reversal of decades of progress [13]. At current rates of increased gender disparities in food security [27], more women and girls will be living in extreme poverty (on less than $1.90 a day) by 2030. Women and girls are subject to unique challenges in conflict and post-conflict settings, missing out on education [71] and, above all food.

Ever since the global food price crises of 2007–2008 and the 2008 World Development Report [80], which called for greater investment in agriculture in developing countries, there has been a lot of attention focused on food security from both academic and non-academic communities [1, 41, 48]. Despite decades of efforts to combat hunger and malnutrition, food insecurity remains a major issue [60]. The concept of food security is evolving and becoming more globalised and is closely tied to other challenges, such as global environmental change and energy markets [41, 78] Lang et al., 2009; [42]. As a result, academic institutions and policy discussions are increasingly embracing the concept of food security [14, 54, 78]. The WFP reports that the number of individuals experiencing acute food insecurity has increased by over three times between 2017 and 2021. The conflict between Russia and Ukraine could potentially increase by 17% to 323 million in the current year [78].

Food security is projected to be impacted negatively due to rapid population growth in developing countries [36], coupled with global climate change and the recent economic downturn [38]. The world’s population is projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050 [73, 16], and climate uncertainties show declining crop production [64]. A growing population pushing food demand to its limits already strains the Earth’s resource capacity. Global agriculture faces the pressure of feeding the increasing mouths, constrained by climate change, land availability and degradation, loss of biodiversity and food insecurity [20]. Governments must discuss openly with industry, technical organisations, academia, and civil society to address the emerging risks. To prevent nutrition crises, the focus should be expanding the already-existing international frameworks, such as the Committee on World Food Security. These organisations serve as platforms for policy discussions and a repository for advisory tools [27, 69]. further acknowledged that “how” to achieve a sustainable food system is less well addressed in current scientific literature, and insights from the social sciences are frequently underrepresented. It is further argued that insights from the social sciences can be utilised to map and analyse the various food system components and their dynamics concerning sustainability goals. Promoting socio-economic and environmental sustainability in the agri-food sector for future generations must go hand-in-hand with unwavering commitment to food safety and consumer protection. Due to the need for such a transition, it is more important than ever to revaluate national and supranational strategies and policies, the lack of which has had a profound impact during Covid19 [50] and now it has been left bare in the current war in Ukraine [71]. The most crucial aspect of this discussion is the failure to address the farming sector and their safety, especially the women farmers. From this perspective, a gender-focused approach has been addressed in this study. Given this context, a gender-sensitive approach is essential, especially for developing countries’ food systems, acknowledging gender equality and women's empowerment as key factors in improving food systems to address food security. Women farmers are often disproportionately affected by challenges in agriculture due to gender disparities in access to resources, land ownership, and decision-making power. Cultural norms and traditional gender roles limit women's access to education and modern farming techniques, making them more vulnerable to economic shocks and climate disasters. Women’s roles as primary caregivers exacerbate food insecurity during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic or conflicts, where disruptions in food supply chains worsen vulnerabilities. A gender-focused approach is crucial for empowering women farmers and improving food systems, as gender equality is key to achieving food security, especially in developing countries. Addressing the specific needs of women farmers, such as access to resources and support services, can make agricultural systems more resilient and inclusive.

Global discussions on food security acknowledge gender equality to enhance agricultural and economic growth and ensure food security [5, 25]. Nonetheless, studies reveal that gender inequality contributes to food insecurity, especially for poor and marginalised women who have limited access to crucial agricultural resources [61]. While empowering women is linked to better food security, it has not been fully realised regarding investments and gender equality results. This is particularly relevant in light of increasing male out-migration trends and shifting towards a more female-dominated agriculture industry (Galieand Kantor, 2016).

Galie and Kantor [34] argue that the policy debate on women’s empowerment often has a narrow and apolitical approach. Development programmes tend to focus on economic empowerment rather than addressing the root causes of gender inequality, which include norms, institutions, and larger political and economic structures. Economic empowerment alone does not address the deeper issues that (re)produce gender inequalities [34, 42]. Creating sustainable food systems requires moving from an agriculture-centred to a food system policy and research framework. This will be fundamental to fostering the complex and holistic transformation necessary to achieve sustainable food systems, which is, in turn, a prerequisite to achieving sustainable food and nutrition security. This study highlights the importance of a gender-sensitive approach to improve food systems and address food security in developing countries. Gender equality and women’s empowerment are key factors in this regard. Sustainable food systems, food security, gender equality, and climate change are closely linked to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These include SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). Therefore, addressing these interconnected issues is crucial for achieving multiple SDGs.

Theoretical framework

Definition of food security

The task of defining the concept of food security evolved from the World Food Summit in 1996, which says, “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences [59, 67] for an active and healthy life” [31, 65, 66, 81]. Food security is built on three pillars: availability, access, and utilisation. Food availability refers to the amount of food that is consistently available; food access relates to the resources needed to obtain the right foods for a nutritious diet; and food use refers to the appropriate use of food in light of basic nutrition and care knowledge, as well as access to clean water and sanitation [42]. Addressing food security is a complex issue that necessitates institutional collaboration across sectors. Berry et al. [9] reiterate that the concept of food security emerged because of the infrequent global food crisis. The recurrence of famine, hunger, and food crises demanded a new approach to food security that considered the critical needs and behaviour of potentially vulnerable and affected people. Jarosz [45] observes a shift in the definition of food security. The paradigm shifts from the international level of world regions and nations to the level of poor households and individuals, demonstrating a widening gap between the haves and have-nots, the powerful and the vulnerable.

The scientific community now advocate that “food must be viewed more as a common good rather than as a consumer good”, as has been the tendency in the past. To achieve a sustainable food system, the central goal of all relevant policy development and assessment must be to ensure food sustainability in all aspects: environmental, social and economic (High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition, 2020). The High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) is an independent advisory body providing scientific advice to the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) to address global food security and nutrition challenges. SDG 12 aims to “ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”. Therefore, it is critical to comprehend what a sustainable food system is [39].

What is a sustainable food system

Food security is unquestionably important for society's well-being [50]. This idea has different meanings worldwide, adding to its complexity and broadness [22]. Social equity, environmental sustainability, and food security challenges are interconnected and are rarely best addressed separately. Policymakers and researchers increasingly turn to food systems to comprehend the inter-linkages of these issues with food and to address the complexity that results [12]. Food systems refer to integrating food into multifaceted and multi-layered processes that connect food production, distribution, processing, and consumption while acknowledging that these processes are supported by intricate political, economic, social, and ecological relationships [23]. A food system is defined as ‘All elements and activities related to production, processing, distribution, preparation, and consumption of food’ [77], as depicted in Fig. 1. The factors that go into getting food from a farm to the consumers include the environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructure, and institutions [23].

Fig. 1
figure 1

[35]

A food systems diagram showing drivers of change and relationship with food system outcomes. Source: Garnett et al.,

Full size image

How sustainable is the food system

The 2022 WFP report reveals alarmingly high levels of hunger exceeding those ever recorded. The need for resilient food systems cannot be overemphasised. Visser and Wangu [75] noted that multiple shocks and stressors operating at various scales can simultaneously affect people and communities. To ensure that everyone can meet their food needs, food systems are under tremendous pressure and becoming increasingly vulnerable [30]. These factors include a growing population, increased competition from non-food production for agricultural resources, such as biofuel crops, the effects of the agricultural output, socio-economic inequalities, and shifting dietary patterns [32]. Additionally, food systems interact with agricultural systems in the “food production” sector along with various services, technologies, and undertakings governing production, distribution, transportation, accessibility, and “food consumption”. Food systems not only influence the production and consumption behaviour of the people, but also their prospective attitudes and perceptions towards a nutritious diet [30].

Therefore, production and consumption patterns are understood as the real discourse surrounding “sustainable food security”, currently overshadowed by stress and uncertainty [29]. Several variables, such as geographic location, demographic trends, urban development, and globalisation, impact food production and consumption [63]. Drawing from Jaroze (2012), at the national, local, and household levels, socio-economic status, income level, consumer habits, religion, and culture also impact. The food system can be harnessed to improve and bind the urban and rural domains by establishing a new food industry, creating new jobs, and recovering the value of local products. This would ensure a regular supply of food products to meet the urban demand [12].

The authors contend that the various components of the food system are directly or indirectly related to the patterns of food production and consumption, which are the keys to achieving food security [12]. The positive and negative associations must be considered to simultaneously accomplish SDG 2 and SDG 12's multiple goals. The current food-crisis presents a serious challenge to the SDGs of the United Nations. Almost all SDGs are directly and indirectly involved with food security issues, and targets must be achieved to solve them [75]. To transition to a sustainable food system, it is crucial to investigate the connections between food security and the SDGs . To build a more resilient food system, it is imperative to avoid supply-chain disruptions by strengthening market management and implementing redundancy [75]. Environmental degradation caused by agriculture can diminish food production, weakening the food system and creating a vicious cycle. An inequitable food system that adversely affects the environment cannot be deemed sustainable [75]. Given this context, a gender-sensitive approach is essential, especially for developing countries’ food systems, acknowledging gender equality and women’s empowerment as key factors in improving food systems to address food security [3]. During the pandemic 2020–2021 period, it became clear that food systems had not met their objectives [75], which the world is reliving right now because of the conflict in Ukraine [71]. Interest in research and policy has primarily focused on productivity, food systems’ environmental effects, and consumption patterns [15]. Despite its significance, discussions on enhancing the sustainability and resilience of food systems have scarcely included a gender perspective [75].

Both men and women participate in food systems, but the nature and extent of their participation varies depending on the economy’s structure and gender norms. Women are actively involved in various roles, from production and processing to retailing and consumption; they grow and manage crops, tend livestock, and work in agribusinesses and food.

retailing, preparing food for their families, and much more [49]. However, women’s contributions to food systems are often not formally recognised or appropriately valued. Women frequently face constraints that prevent them from engaging on equitable terms, in many countries, women have less schooling than men, control fewer resources, have less decision-making power over household income, and face time constraints because of their triple burden of productive, domestic, and community responsibilities [61].

The overall food security score of the Global Food Index has decreased because of the unprecedented number of global shocks that are currently occurring. Stakeholders will need to adopt a systemic approach and build resilience in the food supply and the environment in which food is grown and distributed to combat these stresses and shocks and ensure food security in the future. A food system must still produce the desired results when exposed to these stresses and shocks to be resilient. Zohrabi et al. [82] note that a resilient food system can quickly bounce back from disruptions, resist them, and reorient itself toward more sustainable outcomes. Effectively addressing food insecurity necessitates interdisciplinary research incorporating new technologies alongside social, economic, and environmental considerations [53, 74].

Whether in business or government, a food systems approach to policymaking would have significant advantages. Focusing on a holistic approach and interdisciplinarity can ensure that problems are approached from various angles and comprehensively, more closely aligning policymaking with the actual situation on the ground. Identifying the issue comes first, followed by investigating the food system as necessary to determine its causes, and finally, developing strategies to address these [11]. Queiroz et al. [62] propose the possibility of redirecting financial resources toward resilience and sustainability. Regions vulnerable to environmental, socio-economic and political turbulence face high levels of disruption in local and regional food systems and have detrimental impacts on food security. That may pose a challenge to developing business and policy incentives for resilience-building. In this regard, a thorough scientific analysis of climate change and its effects on food safety is necessary due to the connections between the various research fields and the multidisciplinary nature of climate change effects [51].

Materials and method

This study employed a qualitative systematic literature review methodology to meet the study’s objectives. The study builds on secondary information found in relevant and recent gender and food security literature under a changing climate. A major research issue worldwide is the relationship between the impact of women's empowerment on women's nutrition and other development goals. The criteria applied to choose studies that fit the study’s parameters are shown below:

  • 1. A focus on climate change and its impact on food security.

  • 2. Gender and the risk of climate change.

  • 3. A gender-sensitive approach and coping strategy.

Due to limited access to Scopus and Web of Science, this study primarily relied on Google Scholar for relevant research outputs. The search terms used included “food systems and sustainability goals”, “food security and climate change”, “food security and gender”, “gender equity and food security”, “women farmers and developing countries”, “smallholder farmers and climate change” some of the terms were used interchangeably.

The collected articles were screened for relevance to the topic. Both the title and abstracts were first reviewed for insertion or deletion. The most relevant articles were then read and included in the study. Except for a few exceptions, the study is limited to the post-2016 time frame to the most recent to get a sense of the current situation and what is accomplished under sustainability goals. Finally, screening to remove duplicates and include only peer-reviewed work to attain originality. Table 1 summarises and quantifies the data acquired using the given search strategy. In the first step of the analysis, the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system was employed to determine the climatic context of the studies reviewed. As Chen and Chen [17] suggested, adopting a climatic approach helps to organise the study in the context of the local microclimatic characteristics increasingly used by the scientific community. This empirical system aids in determining the climate type for any region over 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The literature is spread from tropical climates (Am/Aw/Af) through mild temperate (Cwa/Cfa/Csa) to dry climates (Bwh) across three continents.

Table 1 Quantification of data
Full size table

Of the 96 available studies, as in Table 1, 24 were selected after screening the Titles and Abstracts. Finally, after a full-text review, 13 published articles were found relevant, matching the selection criteria and making them usable for this review article.

Data screening and analysis

To manage data collection and screening, the study used a PRISMA [52] (Preferred Reporting Items Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) diagram. As depicted in Fig. 2, the diagram consists of four major steps. In the first step (identification), 96 relevant articles dating from 2016 to 2022 were gathered; those identified in search engines and additional sources found in the reference lists of these publications were included in these publications. Next (screening), duplicates (e.g., multiple publications of one study) were removed, and the number of publications was reduced to 62 articles. In the same step, these articles’ abstracts were analysed, resulting in 45 articles. Next (eligibility), the evaluation criteria were applied to these articles, and the final number at this step was 24. In the final step (included), after reviewing the full texts, only 13 publications were relevant, matching the selection criteria and usable for this review article (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2
figure 2

A flow diagram of PRISMA

Full size image
Fig. 3
figure 3

Geographical distribution of countries where selected studies showed their climate regimes. Source: Authors

Full size image

Results

The review resulted in several studies investigating the growing evidence of and pointing to the high cost of ignoring the significant “gender gap” in most nations’ agricultural productivity and development. This relates to continued inequality and the lost chances to enhance development outcomes. In the context of climate change, it is essential to use the gender lens to understand how gender helps regulate opportunities and challenges. The prime focus was the relationship between women’s empowerment, food security, cultural background, socio-economic structure, and some responses to local adaptation to changing climates. It has been observed that the major focus of most studies has been on the decision-making power of women and their asset ownership in agriculture to improve nutrition and food security at the household level. The following sections provide an analysis of the profile of the studies reviewed.

Profile of reviewed studies

As presented in Table 2, all studies reviewed used concurrent field measurements with a questionnaire survey to collect data pertaining to the gender–agriculture–food security nexus.

Table 2 Summary of recent food security studies from a gender perspective
Full size table

In one study (Krisjanson, 2019), a remote survey was conducted that was preceded by in-depth interviews to understand the cultural background of participants. The selected studies are from 2017 to, most recently, 2022, mostly concentrated in the poor nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which have diverse cultural, agro-economic, and dietary habits. The impact of climate, the most crucial factor affecting livelihoods, has been mostly underrepresented.

Q (questionnaire survey)

Climate types: Am-Tropical monsoon climate, Aw-Tropical savanna, Af- Tropical rainforest climate, Bwh-Hot deserts climate, Cwa-Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate, Cfa-Humid subtropical climate, Csa- Hot-summer Mediterranean climate.

Gender and climate change: why are women at more risk from global warming?

Global warming is the long-term heating of the Earth caused by human activities like burning fossil fuels. These fuels release greenhouse gases that trap heat from the sun in the atmosphere, warming the planet. We are already seeing the effects of extreme weather, rising sea levels, and melting ice, and it is expected to worsen. To combat this, we must switch to renewable energy sources, become more energy efficient, protect forests, and adjust agricultural practices to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Adopting sustainable and climate-resilient food and energy systems and practices has never been more crucial [71]. Our understanding of climate change and potential threats to world food security raises serious questions about the viability and sustainability of all life [28, 40, 44]. Global and regional conferences merely serve as a forum for repeating the dominant narrative on food security and climate change, which calls for proactive participation from each region and the global community. The impacts of climate change disproportionately affect poorer regions and communities that are least responsible for the change and are less able to adapt [10, 44, 56]. The impact of climate change undermines human rights and reinforces inequalities and injustice [15]. Climate change undermines human rights and reinforces inequalities and injustice by disproportionately impacting vulnerable populations, exacerbating existing social, economic, and political disparities. Marginalised communities, with limited resources and adaptive capacity, bear the brunt of climate-related consequences, such as displacement, loss of livelihoods, and food insecurity. Wealthier nations' disproportionate greenhouse gas emissions further exacerbate these inequalities, while barriers to resources and decision-making processes perpetuate injustice. Addressing climate change necessitates tackling underlying inequalities to uphold human rights and ensure equitable adaptation and mitigation efforts.

Rural women are among the hardest hit by the crisis, given their vulnerability and lack of coping capacities [8, 63]. The agricultural sector and, in turn the food systems, are under considerable risk due to the impact of climate change [68]. It is clear that smallholder farmers, comprising women, youth, and indigenous people, are at the highest risk in developing nations [21, 19, 75]. Authors [6, 10] argue that the food systems are influenced by existing and evolving social and economic conditions. These include women’s unfair socio-economic conditions because of their gender [6, 12, 47]. They are less likely to relocate to safer areas because of their limited participatory role in decision-making [6, 47, 75]. Besides, social and gender inequality is further aggravated in the changing scenario. The structural causes of gender inequality that lead to vulnerability are ignored [7, 76], while women are labelled as the victims of climate food supply constraints, skyrocketing food prices, and restricted access to fertilisers are having a drastic impact on women's and girls' food security and nutrition on a global scale (U.N. woman, 2022, [8].

Increased resilience [61], or the capacity of everyone to respond to the challenges posed by climate change, is essential for gender equality in a world that is 2 °C (or warmer). Resilience means that women, men, and their communities must be adaptable to prevent, manage, or recover from the shocks and stresses climate change brings [2]. Climate change impacts men and women differently. [47] observes that climate change accelerates the trend of agriculture becoming more female-oriented while driving men into migration. In developing countries, the rural livelihood is jeopardised as conditions are made worse by climate change. Therefore, adopting a gender perspective enriches and provides key insights to the discussion of climate change; involving women in the decision-making process should be considered part of the solution. To develop gender-responsive policies that support equality while enhancing resilience globally, building on earlier experiences and research and drawing lessons from them will be advisable [2].

The IPCC reports are constant reminders about the enormity of these changes. In 2018, the report reflected on how farmers were forced to relocate as temperatures rose, escalating inequality. The most recent [43] emphasises how severe food insecurity has been brought on by climate change in developing nations. Additionally, it addresses that smallholder farmers face severe adaptation gaps in regions that face serious development obstacles like poverty, limited access to basic services and resources, and a high reliance on livelihoods sensitive to climate change. Governments should set up or improve social protection systems to protect the most vulnerable. The food system must be made more resilient. These systems will function properly during the crisis if market management is strengthened and redundancy is built to prevent supply-chain disruptions [75]. Batool et al. [8] pointed out gaps in the literature addressing how climate change affects women, particularly rural women. Women are stereotyped as victims of climate change impacts. At the same time, the structural causes of gender inequalities that cause vulnerability are ignored, with climate change making access to traditional food harder and scarcer. Given the numerous environmental, economic, and social risks and unsustainability that endanger the planet and people's lives, livelihoods, and well-being, fossil fuel-based agriculture and energy are no longer practical. Ampire 2020 have assessed gender empowerment through two schools of thought: i. the process analysis and ii. the content analysis to analyse the quality of gender policies. While the process analysis looks at more gender-responsive policy formulation, with women’s organisations and professionals participating at all stages, the content analysis method assesses the representation of women in policies or the degree to which their concerns and interests are met. The technique evaluated the degree to which climate change policies contributed to gender issues.

Gender equity and food security in the global agenda 2030

For all the goals to be achieved, gender equality is vital. They represent half of the global population and an equivalent workforce. Improving their lives benefits society as a whole and sustainable development in all its dimensions. Ensuring women access to respectable employment opportunities and steady income promotes better outcomes for women and girls regarding nutrition, health, education, and poverty reduction (SDG 1, SDGs 2, 3 and 4). SDGs, therefore, promise to improve the lives of women and girls. Still, additional action is required to accelerate the process, address the bottlenecks, and avoid any slowdown of decades of work. Despite gender equality being the driver of sustainable development in all its dimensions, progress on gender equality has been very uneven across the various dimensions of the 2030 Agenda (U.N. [72]).

The United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSS) (European [26]) was held in 2021 to achieve the SDGs, particularly SDG5, on women's empowerment and gender equality in food systems. Women play significant roles as producers, wage workers, processors, traders, and consumers in the food system. However, they face numerous obstacles and limitations, such as less resource access and weak tenure rights. Inequality in society, often present in food systems, strengthens these limitations. For instance, women's unequal access to critical resources in agriculture reduces their productivity and decision-making power (European [24, 26]).

A gender-sensitive approach and a lack of meaningful dialogue

Much evidence links women’s empowerment to food security [3, 12, 18, 58]. Boosting women’s education is likely the most important policy tool for increasing agricultural productivity and reducing poverty and child malnutrition, ensuring that food is always available at home for everyone [47, 58]. The Sustainable Development Agenda set a 2030 deadline for achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls. With less than ten years left to achieve it, U.N. Woman (2022) [71] confirms that the progress on gender equality has not only stalled but is starting to reverse amid the intersecting crises of COVID-19, the climate emergency, and rising economic and political insecurity. The inability to achieve SDG 2 by 2030 is due to the instability of the factors that go into achieving food security, which has resulted in volatile food prices. This instability is especially evident for women smallholder farmers due to inadequate knowledge and access to means, making them most vulnerable to a crisis [12]. All of this is primarily due to political decisions made that are gender-blind and have not attempted to fix the flawed agri-food system. Even existing liberties and rights are being challenged by a rising backlash against women's rights around the globe [24]. According to the Global Report on Food Crisis 2022 Mid-year Update, up to 205 million people in 45 countries are expected to experience acute food insecurity. The 19 hunger hotspots identified urgently require targeted humanitarian action to save lives and livelihoods [79]. Due to the close association between poverty and food insecurity, rural women are more likely than men to be food insecure [37]. [61], have been critical of the effectiveness of gender-focused programmes in the food system, whether through gender-transformative, sensitive, or supportive approaches. In essence, they will aid in identifying successful methods for empowering women and lowering gender inequality. Increasingly, it is understood that changing food systems for inclusion entails ensuring women’s participation and access to benefits and giving them the power to make informed decisions about their lives [49].

The necessary systemic change has not recently occurred in the current food security paradigm, particularly in the discourse on food systems. OECD-FAO [57] is a joint report by two international organisations predicting agricultural, fish, and biofuel market trends for the next decade. It considers factors like economics, climate change, and policies as a reference for global agri-food planning. OECD-FAO [57] advocate integrating a gender perspective into the supply chain, taking proactive risk management measures, and making sure that no actions are taken that could jeopardise gender equality. Visser and Wangu [75] see the primary structural issues that disadvantaged women smallholder farmers face remain unaddressed, and the most likely scenarios for food security do not appear to have improved [46].

Although the issue of women’s participation in food security has gained some common ground, Clement et al. [18] claim that this has not resulted in “actual investments dedicated to women’s empowerment and resulting outcomes on gender equality and enhanced food security.” Visser and Wangu [75] suggest meeting the current needs by adopting a food security solution for those most in need by building on their rich and resilient knowledge and practice.

Gender empowerment and coping strategies

Women's empowerment is increasingly seen to boost household nutrition and food security [18, 49, 58, 61]. An individual's capacity for self-determination, or living the life they have good reason to value, is acquired through empowerment. To assess this capacity for self-determination, scholars and development professionals continue to work to understand what factors influence it and to identify the major facets of empowerment. However, how women's empowerment affects household food security and nutrition is complicated and remains unclear [12, 33].

Scholars claim an increase in women's education was the single largest contributor to all reductions in child malnutrition [6, 18, 76] in sub-Saharan Africa [58]. Ampire (2020) has assessed gender empowerment through two schools of thought: i. the process analysis and ii. the content analysis to analyse the quality of gender policies. While the process analysis looks at more gender-responsive policy formulation, with women’s organisations and professionals participating at all stages, the content analysis method assesses the representation of women in policies or the degree to which their concerns and interests are met. Scholars have employed this method to determine the degree to which climate change policies have contributed to gender issues.

Due to their high vulnerability to climate change and limited capacity for adaptation, women may only be able to cope with it rather than adapt to it and become more resilient in the long run [47]. Low-income families experience asset losses and diminished incomes during times of crisis. Women are prone to reduced spending on nutrition and family well-being because they typically have weak purchasing power in terms of household income. Women normally employ severe measures to minimise the impacts, such as reducing their consumption to feed others, gathering wild food, moving or selling assets, or even taking on risky jobs [70]. Batool et al. [8] make a strong point about women’s perceptions of climate change, which can be the best coping mechanisms and are essential for mitigating the negative effects of climate change. Older women with a wide range of farming experience and education tend to better adapt to changing climates and, therefore, to climatic shocks.

Policymakers are tasked with educating the public about climate change, granting credit to women to implement adaptation measures, and fostering informal social networks among rural women. Quisumbing (2021) opines finding effective methods for empowering women and eradicating gender inequality will depend on the effectiveness of initiatives in the food system that explicitly take gender into account, whether through gender-transformative, sensitive, or accommodating approaches.

Discussion

To achieve food security in the face of climatically unpredictable conditions, the current review provides the findings of a literature review concerning the role of gender in the food system to attain food security under uncertain climatic conditions. A growing body of research suggests that empowering women may have positive nutritional effects on both the individuals and the households and communities in which they live, a key to achieving food security [4, 33]. Improving women’s education is the most crucial policy to increase agricultural productivity and reduce poverty (U.N. Woman, 2022 [8, 58]). The study groups are mostly concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, with only a few from Latin America indicating the seriousness of hunger and malnutrition in these countries. Both mixed qualitative (questionnaire-based interviews) and quantitative (descriptive statistics) measures have been used by the studies reviewed so far. Four studies have followed the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), a survey-based index designed to measure the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in the agricultural sector [55], while each HFIAS—represent a universal field of experience of food insecurity in a variety of cultural contexts [76]. Women’s Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) to women's empowerment, a standardised measure to capture the empowerment of women involved in the livestock sector, which ILRI and Emory developed in 2015 based on the Feed the Future Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) [33]. Pro-WEAI + MI is a metric developed to measure women’s and men’s absolute and relative empowerment along value chains (Quisumbing, 2021).

Despite the complexity of women’s empowerment, studies [55] have emphasised the need for more evidence-based gender-sensitive value chain development (VCD) measures in various situations and at levels of analysis [3]. Gender equity-focused initiatives like the VCD can significantly better women’s lives as individuals and citizens. Knowing the circumstances in which VCD can help women, and other marginalised groups will be essential to future progress in inclusive economic development. In this context, Quisumbing (2021) has introduced a socio-cultural element. The author sounds more advisory in documenting that initiatives aimed at empowering women in food systems and value chains consider the social and cultural contexts in which these food systems operate to ensure that approaches “do no harm” and do not worsen the already-existing gender inequalities.

The mixed (quantitative–qualitative analysis) approach adopted by Clement et al. [18] demonstrates a variety of patterns relating to empowerment and food security indicators, as well as the influences socio-economic determinants have on these patterns globally. They suggest giving meaning to local values, thereby overcoming the gap that keeps marginalised populations food insecure. Consistent with other studies, [6] finds limited asset ownership, market access, fewer educational opportunities, and workloads primarily cause undernutrition and food insecurity. This calls for strengthening nutrition-sensitive interventions for women, rural development for diverse food production and consumption, and eradicating gender-based cultural issues [7].

Following similar lines, Visser and Wangu [75] suggest a broad transformation of the current food security paradigm to improve the food system. To ensure that food security solutions benefit everyone, particularly in access and utilisation, they propose an inclusive and structurally integrated strong gender lens into the food systems by leveraging their rich and tenacious knowledge and practices. [76] seeks to promote gender awareness of rural women regarding their basic rights through different governing bodies that will improve food security. They relate to infrastructure investments, training, and job opportunities for rural women, which are crucial factors in reducing food insecurity and closing the gender gap. Determining the differences between women and men workers is an interesting technique that emerges from Andersen et al.’s (2020) work. Despite some studies testing for different economic returns by gender for a given agricultural intervention, they highlight the lack of focus on the financial impact of programmes aimed at empowering women in agriculture.

An enquiry into the perception of climate change on rural women farmers indicates that women's experience on farms is the primary determinant of how they perceive and respond to climate change [8]. However, landownership is a major criterion for women to encourage investments and embrace new technology. Moreover, Hurey [40] maintains that adverse effects of the climate, such as drought and deforestation, will significantly increase the workload for women. Adapting to the change and taking collective action helped generate positive results, creating programmes that are tailored to their needs and limitations, gaining gender equality and ensuring that their voices are heard.

Based on research results, [47] suggest a continuing need to invest in participatory “action research” methods, putting new ideas to the test and learning alongside local partners as they do so. Through such initiatives, gender and climate change issues can be better understood, and more importantly, local partners can develop climate change-appropriate skills. Additionally, many low-income countries severely lack the institutions and policies that support climate-resilient agricultural systems. Examining, challenging, and influencing gender norms and power are all aspects of gender-transformative approaches. By raising the status of women, altering the allocation of resources, and changing the roles that men and women play, gender imbalances can be corrected.

A thorough scientific analysis of climate change and its effects on food safety is necessary due to the connections between the various research fields and the multidisciplinary nature of climate change effects [51].

Conclusion

This review article focuses on gender empowerment and food security under the risk of changing climate. A significant international environmental and geopolitical concern is the seemingly impossible task of freeing the world from an unsustainable global food system. Addressing food insecurity among women in a food system that's (more) unstable and broken is more of a challenge. A shift from an agriculture-centred to a food system policy and research framework is necessary to develop sustainable food systems. This is crucial for fostering the comprehensive transformation required to create sustainable food systems, which is needed for achieving sustainable food and nutrition security.

Increasingly, improving household food security and nutrition is seen as a goal of women's empowerment and achieving SDG 1 and SDG2. The eradication of hunger and the provision of sustainable food security are important indicators of sustainable development. Studies on food security at the village level are few, and those that have taken place internationally, however, have concentrated exclusively on particular facets of food security, with little focus on the socio-cultural and environmental factors. Increased barriers to incorporating a gender perspective into supply chain due diligence can assist businesses in managing risks proactively and methodically while avoiding actions that undermine gender equality.

The review study found that improving women's education positively enhanced agricultural productivity and reduced poverty. A gender-equity-focused initiative, Value Chain Development (VCD), could also help improve women's lives. Although most of the studies' main focus has been on asset ownership, the enquiry into barriers posed by gender-based cultural issues is limited, and there is a lack of focus on the economic impact of programmes aimed at empowering women in agriculture. Additionally, there is little in the literature about how climate change is affecting women, particularly rural women, who are more susceptible to the effects of climate change than men and have inadequate knowledge of coping mechanisms.

Researchers who want to construct an inquiry into the gender-based food security study will find the current research useful. Future researchers can focus on and study key aspects by being aware of the elements that directly and indirectly affect food security. Thinking systemically and across disciplines can ensure that issues are addressed from various angles and holistically, which better reflects the on-the-ground reality of policymaking. Applying innovative research and design can help us better understand and manage the consequences in a world where climatic uncertainty is rising and threatening the already overburdened food system. Besides academic thought, one has to see and act towards the reality on the ground.

From this perspective, a more focused approach to research on food security, gender equity and sustainability issues can be undertaken in the future:

  1. 1.

    Recognising the factors that directly and indirectly affect food security, more evidence-based gender-sensitive value chain development (VCD) measures in various situations and at levels of analysis are required.

  2. 2.

    A cross-cultural analysis to determine how women farmers perceive climate change at both local and global scales,

  3. 3.

    An interdisciplinary strategy to tackle the issue of food insecurity while taking into account its intricate social, economic, and environmental components.