Abstract
Sport consumers’ pride in their teams is displayed in numerous ways. While marketers can capitalize on these pride feelings, the general business literature is devoid of extensive examinations of sport consumers’ pride feelings. The purposes of this study are to develop a conceptualization of sport consumers’ pride feelings toward both tangible and intangible sport consumption objects and examine the relationship between sport consumers’ feelings of pride and identification toward their favorite team as well as their fan community. Study 1 (n = 352) confirmed a typology of sport consumers’ pride feelings with four consumptive vehicles (home stadium, logo, glory of the past, fight songs) in the professional football and baseball contexts. The findings of Study 2 (n = 356) indicated the four pride constructs not only had a direct effect on team and fan community identification, but they also had an indirect effect on team and fan community identification through the respective prestige and distinctiveness dimensions of a sport team and its fan community.
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Introduction
Fans exhibit pride for their favorite sport teams in numerous ways. They celebrate the achievements of their team, both past and present. They proudly don the logo and colors of their favorite team on game day. Ritualistically, they observe and engage in numerous traditions that they associate with being a fan of the team. In all, it is clear feelings of pride play an integral role in the relationship between fans and their favorite team (Decrop and Derbaix 2010; Mahony et al. 2002). Pride feelings have been linked to beneficial outcomes for companies and consumers alike. For individuals, feelings of pride have been linked to the maintenance and enhancement of one’s self-identity and self-esteem (Brown and Marshall 2001; Fischer and Tangney 1995). Further, research has shown positive psychological benefits can spawn from the success of an outside entity (i.e., a sport team) that has personal relevance to the individual (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003; Stokburger-Sauer et al. 2012). From a marketing perspective, pride has been related to commitment and loyalty among consumers (Decrop and Derbaix 2010) while also increasing the likelihood of repeat purchasing and spreading positive word of mouth (Decrop and Derbaix 2010; Soscia 2007). Further, pride has been found to be a primary motivator for luxury brand consumption (McFerran et al. 2014) as well as hedonic product choice (Wilcox et al. 2011).
The context of sport for this research was chosen for a myriad of reasons. First, the focus of this research is on a commonly occurring emotion (pride) that is not only tied to the social identification process (Tracy and Robins 2007) but also is derived from current and past achievements (Decrop and Derbaix 2010). Pride is intertwined with the identification process in that it is an evaluative component of identity and it mirrors an individual’s cognitive appraisal of the status of their group (Tyler 1999). The realm of sport has been characterized by its’ robust emotional experience as well as the significant amount of social interaction that is facilitated by fans of the same sport team brand (Smith and Stewart 2010). Therefore, sport as a product is the ideal setting to elicit and examine such a commonly held emotion such as pride. While examining pride in the context of sport, recent evidence suggests that findings in the sport context can be generalized to the general business context. For example, Tapp (2004) found that sport fans exhibit patterns of loyalty similar to those in non-sport contexts. Further, behavioral loyalty patterns of sport fans have been found to operate in a similar manner to their non-sport counterparts in areas such as the diversity of product consumption they engage in as well as being subject to traditional consumption drivers (Baker et al. 2016; McDonald et al. 2014). Thus, while focusing on the realm of sport, the results of this study have implications for both the sport and non-sport context alike.
Thus, this study fills a considerable gap in the management literature in numerous ways. First, it provides empirical evidence of the role an often encountered consumer-related emotion (pride feelings) plays in two psychological processes underlying vertical self-brand connection (also called team identification; Wann and Branscombe 1993) as well as horizontal communal-brand connection (also called fan community identification; Yoshida et al. 2015a, 2015b). Second, the marketing potential of pride has most commonly been examined in the realm of tangible goods (Belk 1988; Laverie et al. 2002; McFerran et al. 2014). This study will shed light on the role pride plays in the service context (more specifically, the spectator sport context) and the potential benefits it offers to service-based organizations. Finally, while pride has been investigated extensively in the realm of organizational behavior (see Gouthier and Rhein 2011; Helm 2013; Verbeke et al. 2004), less is known about the consequences of eliciting pride in the corporate communication and marketing context despite calls for the further examination among scholars (Boons et al. 2015; Maldonado et al. 2008). Therefore, the purposes of this study are to (1) develop a conceptualization of sport fans’ pride feelings toward both tangible and intangible sport consumption vehicles and (2) examine the relationship between sport fans’ feelings of pride and identification toward their favorite team as well as their fan community.
Conceptual Background
Pride Defined
This study focuses on the specific emotion of pride which is a “self-conscious emotion” that occurs “when a person reaches or exceeds social standards or expectations” (Verbeke et al. 2004 p. 387). Previous studies have suggested that individuals felt pride the most of any emotion and it contributed to their self-assuredness, creativity, and altruism (Bagozzi et al. 1999; Verbeke et al. 2004). It has also been suggested that pride is reinforced through self-motivated and socially valued outcomes, through the exhibition of goods and services, and by soliciting reactions from others (Sredl 2010). Pride emerges as a result of a cognitive appraisal process such as when an individual evaluates his or her own achievements or actions and determines that the outcome was positive (Roseman 1991). This determination can be solely self-driven (independent pride) or derived from the accomplishments of a group where membership is actual or perceived (interdependent pride) (Tracy and Robins 2007). More specifically, pride develops from not only current achievements but also can be generated based on past accomplishments (Decrop and Derbaix 2010). For example, a sport fan may develop pride feelings in response to a positive result on the field by his or her favorite team. Alternatively, pride feelings can emerge as a result of nostalgic feeling when considering the past successes of the team.
Pride in the Business Context
Examinations of pride have largely occurred outside of the sporting context. Verbeke et al. (2004) described pride as a “self-conscious emotion” that occurs “when a person reaches or exceeds social standards or expectations” (p. 387). Previous studies have suggested that individuals felt pride the most of any emotion and it contributed to their self-assuredness, creativity, and altruism (Bagozzi, et al. 1999; Verbeke et al. 2004). It has also been suggested that pride is reinforced through self-motivated and socially valued outcomes, through the exhibition of goods and services, and by soliciting reactions from others (Sredl 2010). McFerran et al. (2014) posited that pride was “duplicitous” and could be interpreted in two contrasting manners, an “authentic” form of pride and a “hubristic” form. The first form is characterized by accomplishment and confidence while the latter is embodied by arrogance and egotism. Finally, Tyler and Blader (2002) examined the role of pride among employees of an organization by looking at their internal evaluations (autonomous pride) as well as comparisons to other groups (comparative pride). They found autonomous pride to be a key driver in employees completing required and non-required work tasks, their adherence to company policies, their identification with the organization, and their intention to remain with the organization. Beyond studies that aim to conceptualize pride, its’ role has been examined in shaping consumer behavior as well.
Pride has also been analyzed as an outcome or antecedent along with other emotions such as sadness and guilt. Soscia (2007) studied the role of pride, along with five other emotions, in predicting post-consumption behaviors such as positive and negative word of mouth and complaint behavior. She found pride feelings were produced in purchase situations where the outcome of the purchase experience helped meet the buyer’s pre-conceived target goal. Conversely, Louro et al. (2005) found pride feelings may actually decrease repurchase intentions under specific conditions. Specifically, those who exhibited high levels of “prevention pride” (positive feelings that arise from avoiding negative outcomes) were less likely to display repurchase intentions due to the impact of consumers’ self-regulatory goals.
In regards to the corporate communication literature, pride has received scant attention. Cornelissen et al. (2006) viewed corporate communications as a strategic management function of communication involving strategic positioning and cultural accommodation aimed at a variety of stakeholders both internally and externally. In a critical review of Dow Corning’s response to a corporate controversy, Argenti (1998) noted that the company’s response involved both internal communication with employees as well as external communication with relevant publics. Goutheir and Rhein (2011) examined the role of organizational pride among employees and its’ influence on commitment to customer service as well as turnover intentions of employees. It was found that higher levels of pride increase commitment to customer service while lowering turnover intentions. From an internal communication standpoint, it is crucial for organizations to identify, celebrate, and communicate relevant points of pride within the organization to the employees at large. Helm (2013) reinforced the importance of pride in promoting positive employee outcomes. It was posited that employers need to engage in reputation management practices to promote the external reputation of the company in an attempt to enhance employee’s pride in being a member of the organization. In both aforementioned studies, the importance of effective corporate communication with employees to boost employee pride was evident. From an external communication standpoint, Boons et al. (2015) examined how generating pride through organizational communication practices can influence behavior among members of a crowdsourcing platform. Their main takeaway was that organizations should capitalize on positive media attention by communicating this positivity to stakeholders which in turn should enhance the level of pride among members which will increase the level of activity among members.
Decrop and Derbaix (2010) performed the most comprehensive theoretical examination of pride in the context of sport. The authors developed a multidimensional model where pride in sport is composed of four dimensions: introspective, vicarious, contagious, and conspicuous. The introspective and vicarious dimensions are largely associated with sport fans’ identity creation processes at the individual (introspective) and group (vicarious) levels. Noting that individuals are attracted to and identify with social groups that enhance their self-esteem by enabling them to internalize the status and success of the groups (Ashforth and Mael 1989), and the identity-related dimensions of introspective and vicarious pride should be considered the psychological consequences of a general feeling of pride. Specifically, consumers may use consumptive vehicles in order to “internalize their pride… boost their self-confidence… support the creation of their collective selves” (Decrop and Derbaix 2010, pp. 594–595). In contrast, the dimensions of conspicuous and contagious pride are more basic and consistent with the notion of pride as a self-conscious emotion that is most strongly elicited in public contexts by increasing an individual’s visibility to others (Tracy and Robins 2004; Webster et al. 2003). Specifically, consumers may use consumptive vehicles “to express their integration within the fan community… show off as the greatest team’s enthusiast” (Decrop and Derbaix 2010 p. 596). Therefore, our conceptual approach distinguishes identity-related dimensions (i.e., introspective and vicarious pride) from more general pride feelings such as conspicuous and contagious pride.
Furthermore, sport fans’ pride feelings are influenced by glory of the past (prior achievements), glory of today (current achievements), and glory of the town (socio-cultural context). Specifically pride is conveyed by a large number of consumptive vehicles, including both tangible and intangible elements (Decrop and Derbaix 2010). The tangible component includes various physical goods such as clothes (e.g., jerseys, caps, and t-shirts), pictures, media material, and more unusual items (e.g., beach towels, baby rompers or pet clothes; Decrop and Derbaix 2010). Conversely, the intangible element entails team colors, anthems, players’ signatures, and fans’ unique behaviors such as shouts, body gestures and group movements (Decrop and Derbaix 2010). Decrop and Derbaix’s (2010) pride framework provides sport marketing researchers the opportunity to operationalize their proposed antecedents of pride feelings (tangible and intangible consumptive vehicles, glorious achievements) as well as their sources of pride possessions.
Focusing on the two dimensions of conspicuous and contagious pride, we further developed a typology of sport fans’ feelings of pride and identified four sources of pride possessions: logo, home stadium, glory of the past, and fight songs. The theoretical rationale for the selection of the four sources is twofold. First, we included logo, home stadium, and glory of the past (also called team history or tradition) because these constructs have consistently been conceptualized as major elements of non-product-related attributes of team brand equity (Bauer et al. 2008; Gladden and Funk 2002; Ross et al. 2006). While team brand equity also consists of product-related attributes such as star player, head coach, team success, and team performance, non-product-related attributes were found to have a greater impact on the symbolic benefits of team brand equity (e.g., team identification) than product-related attributes (Bauer et al. 2008). Therefore, our conceptualization is more focused on non-product-related attributes than on product-related attributes. Second, we further identified fight songs as an additional source of pride possession. Previous studies on the social identity-team brand equity model suggest that the unique group experience in the presence of other fans inspire individuals to raise aspirations for identifying with their favorite team (Boyle and Magnusson 2007; Underwood et al. 2001). Among various pre- and in-game fan activities (e.g., pregame tailgating parties, anthems, fight songs, and group movements), our primary interest is in fight songs because sport fans tend to express their pride contagiously through collective fight songs (Decrop and Derbaix 2010).
Next, we classified the four sources of pride possessions into four theoretical categories. The typology is based upon the notion of contagious and conspicuous pride (as detailed by Decrop and Derbaix 2010) as well as tangibility/intangibility (as detailed by Keller and Lehmann 2006). As shown in Fig. 1, logo and home stadium are primarily conspicuous, tangible, and artificial, whereas fight songs and glory of the past are invisible, intangible, and cultural. This distinction is supported by the idea of brand tangibles and intangibles (Keller and Lehmann 2006) that suggests brand tangibles involve physical or concrete attributes (e.g., logo and home stadium) while brand intangibles transcend physical attributes and include a wide range of aspirational user imagery and consumption experiences (e.g., glory of the past and fight songs). We further distinguished between high and low levels of contagious pride. That is, logo and fight songs are more expressive and shared with other fans in group situations. In contrast, home stadium and glory of the past are less expressive but personally important because feelings of pride toward these elements vary across sport fans depending on their prior attendance experiences (Decrop and Derbaix 2010). In line with these considerations, we posit that fans’ pride feelings are aimed at four points of pride possessions including logo, home stadium, fight songs, and glory of the past on the basis of the levels of conspicuous and contagious pride. As a result, Study 1 was conducted to generate a scale to measure pride feelings of sport fans.
A typology of sport fans’ feelings of pride
Study 1: Assessing the Aspects of Pride Feelings
The objectives of Study 1 were to (1) conceptualize sport fan’s pride feelings toward multiple sport consumptive vehicles, (2) generate survey items for the proposed constructs, and (3) provide evidence of reliability and validity for the generated scale.
Method for Study 1
Measurement
In order to measure the proposed pride constructs, this study adapted the items used to measure the constructs from previous research (see Table 1). Each of the four constructs (i.e., logo, home stadium, fight songs, and glory of the past) was measured with a three-item scale that captured self-esteem, self-regard, and pride (Laverie et al. 2002; Wilcox et al. 2011). The wording was modified to reflect the fan’s point of view. The items were measured with a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree (1)” to “Strongly Agree (7).”
Research Setting and Sample
Study 1 was conducted at games during the 2014 season of two major professional sport leagues in Japan: the Japanese Professional Football League (J. League) and Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). First, data were collected from spectators attending a J. League Division 2 soccer game in a large-sized city in western Japan. From 1996 to 1999 and from 2002 to 2010, the club belonged to Division 1. In 2002, the club won the Emperor’s Cup, one of the most prestigious national championship games in Japan. The club’s fans were excellent illustrations of fan communities with a strong presence of rituals and fight songs. Therefore, all pride constructs were readily identified and assessed in this setting. We used a mixture of convenience and proportionate sampling which was stratified by age and gender. Questionnaires were distributed and collected in the stands prior to the start of the game. Twenty trained surveyors observed an assigned block of the stands in order to estimate the percentage of those attending based on gender (male and female) and age (ages between 18 and 29, ages between 30 and 49, and ages of 50 and above). From the 500 questionnaires distributed, 498 were returned for a response rate of 99.6%. Among the 498 forms returned, 38 were rejected because many items were left blank. We further eliminated respondents who were under 18 years of age (13 subjects) and did not consider themselves as a fan of the home team (95 subjects). Therefore, additional 108 subjects were rejected, leaving 352 cases (n = 352). For this sample, 65.1% of the subjects were male. The average age of the respondents was 41.19 years old (standard deviation = 12.62). Age was also classified into five categories: 28.2% were between 40 and 49 years old, 21.5% were between 30 and 39 years old, 19.7% were between 50 and 59 years old, 18.2% were between 20 and 29 years old, and 8.8% were 60 years old and above.
The second data set was obtained from spectators attending a professional baseball game in the eastern Tokyo metropolitan area. In the last decade, the team has claimed the national championship in 2005 and 2010. The team’s fans have a rich cultural world with their own fight songs, ceremonies, and group movements. Thus, this research setting was deemed appropriate for the current research purpose. Questionnaires were distributed to individuals outside the stadium prior to the start of the baseball game. In order to collect data as systematically as possible, one of the authors estimated when, where, and how many people would be present at various locations around the stadium based on observations of previous games. Ten trained surveyors approached potential respondents in the assigned locations. Of the 330 questionnaires distributed, 328 were returned for a response rate of 99.4%. Thirty of the completed forms were eliminated because many items were left blank. Additionally, we excluded 46 subjects who were under 18 years old (12 subjects) and did not consider themselves as a fan of the home team (34 subjects). The final sample size of the baseball context was 252 (n = 252). In terms of the sample characteristics, 58.7% of the subjects were male. The average age of the respondents was 36.47 years (standard deviation = 10.88). Age was also classified into five categories: more than one-third of the subjects were in the 30-39 age range (31.7%), 29.0% were between 20 and 29 years old, 25.0% were between 40 and 49 years old, and 9.9% were between 50 and 59 years old.
Back-Translation
One of the major sources of critique from a research methods perspective is with the adaptation of cross-cultural surveys (Johnson 1998). Therefore, providing evidence of equivalency is of the utmost importance to ensure validity and reliability. The survey items were developed in English. As a check of meaning equivalence between the original English instrument and the translated Japanese instrument, a bilingual Japanese-English speaker first translated the survey questionnaire into Japanese. Then, another native of Japan who is also fluent in English conducted the back-translation into English. To ensure the accuracy of the translation, a US-born American citizen was asked to assess differences in meaning between the original and the back-translated instruments. A comparison of the two forms indicated that both instruments similarly reflected the construct domains.
Results of Study 1
To examine the psychometric properties of our measures, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using LISREL 8.8. Table 1 presents the results of the global fit indices for the measurement model. In both settings, the comparative fit index (CFI) and non-normed fit index (NNFI) were greater than the cutoff point of .90 (Hu and Bentler 1999). Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) were smaller than the required cut-off point of .08 (Hu and Bentler 1999). The ratios of Chi square to degrees of freedom (χ2/df) and the root mean square residual (RMSEA) in both samples did not meet the cutoff criteria (Hu and Bentler 1999). The RMSEA value was above the cutoff criteria for acceptable model fit (RMSEAsoccer = .125; RMSEAbaseball = .137). While the Chi square to degrees of freedom value has been deemed “difficult to use as a sole indicator” due to its susceptibility to sample and indicator size considerations (Hair et al. 2006, p. 747), the inadequate RMSEA values led to an examination of model modification indices in an effort to improve model fit (see Table 1).
For the soccer sample, the modification indices indicated that the measurement model can be improved by allowing three pairs of errors to correlate (item 2 and 5; item 2 and 8; and item 2 and 11) since the second item of logo is similar in content with the second item of each of the other constructs. This resulted in a decrease in the RMSEA value (.094). For the baseball sample, the modification indices indicated that the measurement model could be improved by allowing three pairs of errors to correlate since the first item of logo is similar in content with the first item of each of the other constructs. This resulted in a decrease in the RMSEA value (.105). Therefore, in both contexts, the RMSEA indicated a near mediocre or “acceptable” fit (.08-.10; Browne and Cudeck 1993; Hair et al. 2006) For both samples, the first or second item of logo is related to the same wording item of the other constructs. This is because (1) the logo represents many prestigious characteristics of the team and (2) the team has several logo types associated with the other pride constructs taken as a whole, most of the model fit indices indicated an adequate fit of the data to the proposed model.
As presented in Table 1, factor loadings ranged from .88 to .97 for the soccer sample and from .72 to .99 for the baseball sample. In both settings, the composite reliability (CR) values for the four constructs were greater than the recommended cutoff point of .60 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988), indicating the proposed constructs were internally consistent. A further assessment of convergent and discriminant validity was conducted by an examination of AVE values. The computed average variance extracted (AVE) values for the proposed constructs ranged from .81 to .92 in the soccer setting and from .79 to .85 in the baseball setting, providing evidence of convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker 1981). Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the AVE estimate for each construct with the squared correlations between the respective constructs (see Table 2). In both settings, and in a total of six correlations between the four constructs, the AVE values were greater than any squared correlations between all pairs of the constructs. Therefore, evidence of discriminant validity was demonstrated.
For both contexts, we also estimated second-order models to determine which aspect of pride feelings best explained the overall concept of pride. For the professional soccer context (χ2/df = 3.99; CFI = .98; NNFI = .98; SRMR = .04; RMSEA = .092) pride toward fight songs (γ = .83) best predicted overall pride followed by logo (γ = .79), stadium (γ = .77), and glory of the past (γ = .73). Interestingly, in the professional baseball context (χ2/df = 3.99; CFI = .98; NNFI = .97; SRMR = .04; RMSEA = .103), pride feelings toward the logo (γ = .92) best predicted overall pride followed by stadium (γ = .81), fight songs (γ = .71), and glory of the past (γ = .71).
Study 1 represents the initial effort to examine the proposed pride constructs. Additional effort should be made to ascertain whether the four pride constructs predict theoretically relevant outcome variables. If we accurately conceptualize and measure the four pride feelings, they should be positively related to consumers’ identification with both the sport team and its fan community. In the next study, we attempted to test the impact of the proposed pride constructs on sport fans’ identification processes using a new sample of professional sport spectators.
Study 2: Construct and Nomological Validation
Study 2 aimed to examine how feelings of pride toward tangible (i.e., logo and home stadium) and intangible consumptive sport vehicles (past glory, and fight songs) impact different role identities (how they identify with the team and fan community). The following sections will propose the research hypotheses under examination.
Hypothesis Development
According to the social identification literature, four general categories of antecedents of team and fan community identification have been identified: organizational characteristics (e.g., prestige, distinctiveness, history, and physical facility; Ashforth and Mael 1989; Bhattacharya and Sen 2003; Underwood et al. 2001), affiliation (dyadic) characteristics (e.g., identity similarity, communication, length of membership, and interaction frequency; Bhattacharya and Sen 2003), activity characteristics (e.g., group experiences and rituals; Boyle and Magnusson 2007; Underwood et al. 2001; Watkins 2014), and associated group identities (e.g., city identity and state identity; Yoshida et al. 2015a, b). Among these antecedents, our primary focus is on organizational prestige and distinctiveness because the theoretical framework of Study 2 is developed based on organizational identification theory (Ashforth and Mael 1989) and the consumer–company identification framework which is the application of organizational identification theory to consumer behavior research (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003). That is, we conceptualize team identification and fan community identification as occurring when individuals highly evaluate the prestigious and distinctive characteristics of their favorite sport team and fan community. Figure 2 is an illustration of the proposed pride feelings identification model. In the following section, we develop hypotheses for this framework.
The hypothesized model. Note. The most notable addition to the literature is conceptualizing the shaded constructs
Pride Feelings, Team Prestige, and Team Distinctiveness
Symbolic interactionist identity theory (Kleine et al. 2009; Laverie et al. 2002) focuses on the relationship between pride feelings and identity importance and assumes that greater pride associated with a particular consumer role such as pride in possessions (e.g., logo and home stadium) and pride in performance (e.g., fight songs and glory of the past) enhances an individual’s view of how the person will be in that role. Organizational identification theory (Mael and Ashforth 1992; Mael and Ashforth 1992) also states that individuals’ identification with an organization will depend on the extent to which they perceive the organization to be distinctive and prestigious. Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) expressed a similar view in their conceptual model of consumer–company identification, demonstrating that consumers use their perceptions of company identity (e.g., culture, climate, values, competitive position, product offerings, and logos) to make distinctiveness and prestige judgments in order to satisfy their fundamental needs for self-distinctiveness and self-regard. Similarly, we propose that a key way sport consumers seek to satisfy their self-distinctiveness and self-enhancement needs is by having a feeling of pride in tangible and intangible consumptive vehicles.
Individuals look to emphasize the positive elements of their personal connection with a sport team as a means to fulfill their needs for self-distinctiveness and self-regard (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003). The identifying brand mark (e.g., team logo), the unique stadium atmosphere and facility characteristics (e.g., home stadium), a rich history and tradition (e.g., glory of the past), and well-known rituals (e.g., fight songs) could potentially be seen as status indicators influencing the global (overall) prestige and distinctiveness assessments of the focal team. Further, therefore, we propose and test the following hypotheses:
H1
Pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past will have a positive effect on perceived team prestige.
H2
Pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past will have a positive effect on perceived team distinctiveness.
Pride Feelings, Fan Community Prestige, and Fan Community Distinctiveness
While pride feelings may impact the identification process with their favorite team, these feelings may also influence how fans perceive the fan group of which they are members (perceived or real). The bedrock behind distinctiveness is identifying artifacts of the subculture that differentiate the “ingroup” from other comparable groups (Ashforth and Mael 1989). In spectator sport, brand marks, fight songs, glory of the past and the physical facility may serve as differentiating points among fan groups. Decrop and Derbaix (2010) reinforced this link between brand attributes and group identification in their examination of the soccer subculture. They found that teams logos acted as “badges” for fans to not only identify themselves but also differentiate from the “outgroup.” Further, team brand imagery also comprised a significant portion of fan symbolism and served as classification tool for like-minded fans.
Brands may contain values that are central to the consumer’s own identity thus the consumption of this brand not only has self-definitional value but also may transmit the self-importance of these values to other consumers (Underwood et al. 2001). Social identity research contends that people are motivated to distinguish themselves from others and need to enhance their sense of self-worth in social contexts (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003; Tajfel and Turner 1985). Sport fans also like to perceive themselves distinctive and prestigious at the group level when supporting their favorite team (Carlson et al. 2009). Because individuals’ perceptions of the distinctive and prestigious features of a social group are impacted by their evaluations of the social group (e.g., culture, values, image, and reputation), fans’ self-conscious emotions elicited by communal fan experiences (pride feelings) with both tangible and intangible consumptive vehicles (i.e., brand logo, home stadium, fight songs, glory of the past) could be seen as a catalyst of the prestige and distinctiveness of robust fan communities. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
H3
Pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past will have a positive effect on perceived fan community prestige.
H4
Pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past will have a positive effect on perceived fan community distinctiveness.
The Mediating Roles of Team Prestige and Team Distinctiveness
Prestige and distinctiveness have long been found to be important drivers of social identification. Consumers aim to be associated with prestigious brands or organizations due to the social capital that is generated by this association (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Belk 1988; Kuenzel and Halliday 2008; Oja et al. 2015). Also, researchers have found a positive relationship between distinctiveness and social identification in the contexts of alumni (Mael and Ashforth 1992) and university sport fans (Carlson et al. 2009). This connection is logical given the central tenet of social identity theory that consumers derive a unique and salient identity through the perceived oneness with an attractive organization and they use this identification as a distinguishing point from other perceived organizations (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Bhattacharya and Sen 2003).
While consumers are likely to identify with a sport team when its characteristics are more distinctive and prestigious, our framework will extend beyond the existing literature by proposing the mediating roles of distinctiveness and prestige in the relationship between pride feelings and team identification. Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) asserted that “consumers are likely to be attracted to a company identity that helps satisfy at least one of their three basic self-definitional needs: self-congruity, self-distinctiveness, and self-enhancement” (p. 79). Further, organizations with a strong reputation are more likely to adopt a messaging strategy that aims to differentiate themselves from competitors (van Halderen et al. 2011). This is likely as consumers’ identification with a company does not depend only on their perceptions of company identity, but also on their internal reactions to it such as the fulfillments of fundamental needs for self-distinctiveness and self-regard. Similarly, the more pride one feels in his or her consumption experiences, the more favorable the identity construction process will be (Klein et al. 2009; Laverie et al. 2002). Drawing on this, we expect team prestige and team distinctiveness to play an integral role in driving the relationship between pride feelings and team identification. Therefore, we developed the following hypotheses:
H5
The effects of pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past on team identification will be mediated by team prestige.
H6
The effects of pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past on team identification will be mediated by team distinctiveness.
The Mediating Roles of Fan Community Prestige and Fan Community Distinctiveness
Beyond the identification with a team, fans will also create “horizontal” relationships with other fans as well. We draw on prior brand community research (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Dholakia et al. 2004) to conceptualize fan community prestige and fan community distinctiveness as mediating variables in the relationship between pride feelings and fan community identification. In addition to the vertical reactions (e.g., team prestige and team distinctiveness) consumers have toward a particular sport team, their horizontal reactions toward the relationships between fan community members (e.g., fan community prestige and fan community distinctiveness) help them satisfy important self-definitional and social needs (e.g., self-discovery, self-enhancement, and interpersonal connections) as a member of the fan community (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Dholakia et al. 2004). As a result, fan communities constitute valid targets for identification among consumers specifically when consumers’ feelings of pride in communal fan experiences (e.g., fight songs, anthems, rituals, and group movements) become self-defining in prestigious and distinctive fan communities (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003; Klein et al. 2009; Laverie et al. 2002). Based on this discussion, perceptions of the prestige and distinctiveness of the fan community are expected to play an essential role in the relationship between pride feelings and fan community identification. Therefore, the following hypotheses were developed:
H7
The effects of pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past on fan community identification will be mediated by fan community prestige.
H8
The effects of pride feelings toward (a) the logo, (b) the home stadium, (c) fight songs, and (d) the glory of the past on fan community identification will be mediated by fan community distinctiveness.
Method for Study 2
Measurement
To measure sport fans’ pride feelings, the same measures used in Study 1 were administered in Study 2. Also, additional items for measuring the proposed mediator and outcome variables were included. A three-item scale for measuring each of team prestige and fan community prestige was adapted from Hur et al.’s (2014) reputation scale. Team distinctiveness and fan community distinctiveness were measured with a three-item scale adapted from the organizational distinctiveness scale used in Jones and Volpe (2010) and Carlson et al. (2009). To measure team identification and fan community identification, we adapted items used to measure these constructs from previous sport management research (Yoshida et al. 2015a, b). The pride constructs were measured with a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mediator and outcome variables, on the other hand, were measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We used different measurement scales in order to address procedural remedies for common method variance (CMV) biases.
Research Setting and Sample
Study 2 was conducted at a 2015 regular season game of a J. League Division 1 team based in a large-sized city in eastern Japan. In 1993, the club was reestablished as a professional organization and joined the J. League Division 1 in 1995. The club won a league championship in 2011 and two Cup titles in 1999 and 2013. The club’s history has evolved to a robust fan community in which the fans have formed a strong camaraderie with each other. As in Study 1, we used a mixture of convenience and proportionate sampling that was stratified by gender and age. Questionnaires were distributed in the stands before the start of the game. Before distributing the questionnaires, 18 trained surveyors observed an assigned block of the stands to estimate the percentages of each gender (male/female) and age (ages between 18 and 29/ages between 30 and 49/ages of 50 and above) group among the spectators. Of the 415 questionnaires distributed, 412 were returned for a response rate of 99.3%. Among the 412 forms returned, 29 were rejected because many items were left blank. We further excluded 27 subjects who were under 18 years old (17 respondents) and were not a fan of the home club. Of the total sample, 66.5% were male. The average age of the respondents was 41.89 (standard deviation = 11.77). Age was also transformed into a categorical variable. More than one-third of the subjects (40.2%) were between 40 and 49 years old, 19.3% were between 30 and 39 years old, 17.0% were between 50 and 59 years old, 16.4% were between 20 and 29 years old, and 6.6% were 60 years old and above.
Results of Study 2
Assessment of the Measures
Through a CFA using LISREL 8.8, we assessed the psychometric properties of the scale items. The fit indices indicated that the measurement model was an acceptable fit to the data (χ2/df = 3.34, CFI = .97, NNFI = .96, RMSEA = .086, SRMR = .052). Similar to Study 1, while all model fit indices did not meet the cutoff criteria for good model fit as set forth by Hu and Bentler (1999), the RMSEA still indicated a mediocre fit (.08–.10; Browne and Cudeck 1993). Scale statistics, including factor loadings (λ), CR, and AVE, are presented in Table 3. All items loaded on their respective constructs and the factor loadings for the latent constructs ranged from .64 to .99. The CR values for all factors were greater than the recommended cutoff point of .60 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988). Furthermore, the AVE values for the proposed constructs ranged from .62 to .89, providing evidence of convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker 1981). Discriminant validity was also established because the AVE values were considerably greater than any correlations between all pairs of the constructs (Fornell and Larcker 1981).
Common Method Variance (CMV)
Given that our survey data containing both independent and dependent variables were collected from the same source at a single point in time, we acknowledge that the correlations among them may be contaminated by CMV (Podsakoff et al. 2003). We addressed procedural remedies (1) by measuring the four constructs of pride feelings with a different measurement scale (7-point scale) from that used for the mediator (prestige and distinctiveness) and outcome (team and fan community identification) variables (5-point scale) and (2) by administrating the items for the mediator and outcome variables before the items for the pride constructs in order to control possible item-order effects (Schimmack and Oishi 2005). We also applied Lindell and Whitney’s (2001) marker variable technique in order to address statistical remedies. We selected schedule convenience (i.e., the extent to which consumers are motivated to attend the game due to the convenient schedule for them) as a marker variable for the CMV analysis. This variable was thought to have no theoretical relationship with our predictor and outcome variables because consumers’ time and effort perceptions of service convenience are theoretically related to their service quality perceptions and satisfaction, but not directly related to their identification with a sport team and a fan community (Berry et al. 2002). As the estimate of CMV, the lowest positive correlation (r = .04; see Table 4) between schedule convenience and team distinctiveness was selected. Using the formulas provided by Lindell and Whitney (2001), we calculated the adjusted correlations between the ten proposed constructs (see Table 4). After controlling for the influence of the marker variable with the adjusted correlation analysis, all of the significant correlations remained significant. Therefore, CMV bias was unlikely to influence the statistical analysis and findings.
Hypothesis Testing: Direct Effects
As shown in Table 5, the fit indices for the hypothesized structural model were χ2/df = 4.45, CFI = .96, NNFI = .95, RMSEA = .099, SRMR = .126. Both CFI and NNFI values were greater than the cutoff point of .90. Although the RMSEA and SRMR values exceeded the acceptable threshold (.05–.08; Hu and Bentler 1999), the RMSEA still indicated a mediocre fit (.08–.10; Browne and Cudeck 1993). An overall assessment of the model fit indicated that the proposed structural model is acceptable, while it was not a close fit. With respect to hypothesis testing, logo (γ = .23, p < .05) had a positive effect on team prestige. Also, the paths from fight songs to team prestige (γ = .16, p < .05), team distinctiveness (γ = .25, p < .01), fan community prestige (γ = .26, p < .01), and fan community distinctiveness (γ = .26, p < .01) were positive and significant. Furthermore, the findings indicated that glory of the past had positive effects on fan community prestige (γ = .26, p < .01) and fan community distinctiveness (γ = .21, p < .01). Collectively, we found support for H1a, H1c, H2c, H3c, H3d, H4c, and H4d. The ability of the hypothesized model to explain variation in the endogenous variables was assessed by R2 values (see Table 5). The variances explained for team prestige, team distinctiveness, fan community prestige, fan community distinctiveness, team identification, and fan community identification were .21, .19, .26, 18, .39, and .63, respectively.
Hypothesis Testing: Indirect Effects
In order to test the indirect effects of the pride constructs on team and fan community identification through the mediator variables, we used the bootstrapping method recommended by Preacher and Hayes (2008). The mediation analysis was performed using Mplus version 7.31 (see Table 6). A bootstrap estimation using 5000 resamples revealed that the 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were wholly greater than zero for (1) the indirect effects of logo (γ × β = .04, p < .05) and fight songs (γ × β = .03, p < .05) on team identification through team prestige, (2) the indirect effect of glory of the past on team identification through team distinctiveness (γ × β = .01, p < .05), (3) the indirect effects of fight songs (γ × β = .16, p < .01) and glory of the past (γ × β = .16, p < .01) on fan community identification through fan community prestige, and (4) the indirect effects of fight songs (γ × β = .06, p < .05) and glory of the past (γ × β = .05, p < .05) on fan community identification through fan community distinctiveness. In addition to these indirect effects, the direct effects of logo (γ = .22, p < .05) and glory of the past on team identification (γ = .14, p < .05) were also positive and significant (see Table 5). Therefore, the effects of logo and glory of the past on team identification were partially mediated by team prestige and team distinctiveness respectively. On the other hand, the indirect effects of fight songs and glory of the past on fan community identification were fully mediated by both fan community prestige and fan community distinctiveness. Further, it is important to note that the impact of fight songs on team identification was fully mediated by team prestige.
General Discussion
While pride has been the focus of previous work in the mainstream marketing context, there is a dearth of examination regarding how pride feelings work in influencing important consumer-related variables. Specifically, there is a significant gap in the knowledge base regarding how these pride feelings influence important consumer-based marketing outcomes such as organizational and member-based community identification processes. We developed a typology of pride feelings toward four consumptive vehicles (glory of the past, logo, home stadium and fight songs) on the basis of the low or high levels of conspicuous and contagious pride (Decrop and Derbaix 2010) and operationalized scale items to measure each pride construct from previous consumer behavior research (Laverie et al. 2002). The findings in the current study indicate that we can empirically assess sport consumers’ pride feelings toward personally and socially important objects of sport organizations both accurately and reliably.
Additionally, this study also reinforced the relative importance of prestige and distinctiveness perceptions in enhancing identification with not only the organization but also among other consumers of the sport organization. While distinctiveness has been found to be a key driver of identification in multiple contexts (see Carlson et al. 2009; Mael and Ashforth 1992; Wann and Branscombe 1990), the current research pointed to prestige as having a more impactful role in influencing both organization-based and consumer-based community identification. While this reinforces Carlson et al.’s (2009) finding regarding the importance of prestige influencing identification among sport consumers of collegiate athletics, the novel aspect of our current findings is not only the fact that prestige played a more prominent role but also how it was found to influence identification among fan community members. While it has been posited that relationships between brand community members help satisfy important self-definitional and social needs (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Dholakia et al. 2004), this research supports the notion that the more prestigious an individual believes a brand community to be, the deeper the connection they will have to the members. This finding has implications for both sport and non-sport brands alike.
Specifically, the findings of Study 2 support the notion that the four pride constructs not only have a direct effect on team and fan community identification, but they also have an indirect effect on team and fan community identification through the respective prestige and distinctiveness dimensions of the sport team and its fan community. Thus, the results provide evidence for nomological validity. Moreover, it is important to note that intangible, highly expressive sources of pride were the key factor in determining both team (fight songs → team prestige → team identification) and fan community (fight songs → fan community prestige and distinctiveness → fan community identification) identification processes. The findings of this study highlight the integral role of fostering contagious pride among consumers and how “brand evangelists,” ultra committed consumers add value to the brand through communal activities (Becerra and Badrinarayanan 2013). In line with this reasoning, this study adds to the existing knowledge by providing evidence that fans’ pride feelings toward intangible objects related to the organization and fan community lead to higher perceptions of the prestigious and distinctive characteristics of both the sport team and the fan community which in turn result in higher levels of team and fan community identification.
Conversely, the effects of a tangible, less expressive object of pride (home stadium) on team- and fan community-related prestige and distinctiveness were not significant, while its direct effect on fan community identification was positive and significant. In the context of English football, Charleston (2009) stated, “the home football stadium would have the same meanings to supporters as those identified with primary spaces (e.g., house) including place attachment, establishment/maintenance of social relationships, ownership, and personal identity” (p. 145). This place attachment approach suggests that the service environment where consumers get together, cooperate, and help each other increases the likelihood that they will socially identify with other consumers. More generally, the results provide even more credence to the importance of the servicescape and it’s ability to provide added value and further engagement among consumers (Nilsson and Ballantyne 2014). Drawing from these arguments, it is plausible that consumers’ pride feelings toward the tangible service environment directly influence their identification with the other members of the community even if the environment is not integrated into the prestigious and distinctive nature of the brand community.
Practical Implications
There are numerous practical implications for marketers that can be deduced by the study results. First, the robust role glory of the past, fight songs, and the brand logo played in influencing perceptions of prestige and distinctiveness toward the organization-based and member-based community identification has considerable marketing implications. Broadly speaking, practitioners should consider emphasizing the seminal moments in an organization’s history when engaging in content marketing. This reinforces Boon et al.’s (2015) assertion that companies need to capitalize (or generate) positive media attention in an effort to invoke pride on behalf of it’s stakeholders including customers, members, and employees alike. In this case, by capturing an organization’s “past glory” and communicating to both its’ internal and external audiences, this will generate pride and positively impact organization-based and member-based identification with the organization through an enhancement of prestige and distinctiveness.
Further, Urde et al. (2007) suggest that strong brand heritage (and the utilization of heritage in marketing) remains a hallmark of reputable brands and can be utilized as a conduit to invoke feelings of security and brand attachment among consumers (Merchant and Rose 2013). While this is done with regularity when marketing the organization itself, activating feelings of prestige and distinctiveness among member of the brand community through marketing the “glory of the past” is a marketing practice utilized with less constancy. Utilization of this corporate communication tactic can have benefits for both consumers and employees of the organization alike. For example, the British fashion label, Burberry, has shown how they can connect consumers with the “glory of the past” of their heritage brand through a complete revamp of the heritage brand and by reconnecting their brand community to the brand through the utilization of social media. While the brand underwent revitalization, they were intent on maintaining their connection to the past glory of the brand through a heritage inspired hashtag campaign and the utilization of archival items posted with modern esthetics (Ogweng 2018). For organizations, it is important to celebrate these points of organizational pride and communicate them internally among employees. From a social identity standpoint, effective reputation management and the strategic utilization of organizational pride can lead to positive organizational outcomes such as lower turnover intentions among employees, higher levels of commitment to service, and a more positive in-member orientation toward the organization (Gouthier and Rhein 2011; Helm 2013).
With regard to the brand logo, it has been established that a strong and unique brand image can enable teams to charge a price premium for their products (Boyle and Magnusson 2007). While previous studies have examined overall brand image, this study looked specifically at the role of pride feelings toward the brand logo and found that these feelings create a perception of prestige among sport consumers. With the recent proliferation of logo redesign in the sport industry (Ahn et al. 2012) and mainstream business, this study reinforces the importance of the brand logo and how it can influence perceptions in regards to the organization. For example, Miller Lite has witnessed considerable success in the realm of sales and branding by reverting the logo and packaging design back to the design of the 1970s. In this vein, it connected consumers back to the original source of competitive advantage for the product, great taste and low calories (Kell 2015). These findings also should give marketers pause when they consider complete rebranding endeavors. These initiatives can be quite costly and may have an opposite effect on the consumer base that takes pride in the logo, fight song, and other relics of the past. Managers should be mindful of not severing ties to the past (even if the organization was not largely successful) when altering these important points of pride for their consumers.
Finally, fight songs were found to enhance the perceptions of prestige and distinctiveness among the fan community and team alike. Creating rituals and traditions like fight songs within the fan base (organically or organizationally induced) are of paramount importance in fostering team and fan community identification among the fan base. The evidence from this study is instrumental to an organization such as D.C. United (and other organizations) which recently have been cracking down on organic fan rituals and traditions. Outside the realm of sport, there are a bevy of examples of how popular pop songs or corporate jingles have had a significant impact of the perception of the brand. Specifically, Miller High Life has witnessed considerable success with bringing back their popular advertising jingle (“If You’ve Got the Time, We Have the Beer… Miller Beer”) from the 1970s (Schultz 2016). Further, infusing music into advertising has been shown to impact affective response and purchase intent among consumers (North et al. 2004). While ritualistic behaviors and traditions have been found to foster social cohesion and togetherness among group members including fans (McDonald and Karg 2014), this study adds to the knowledge base by indicating that fight songs help influence the prestige and distinctiveness of the team and the fan community of that team. These perceptions aid in the identification process of fans toward the community with which they are a part of but also towards the team. Holistically, with the findings we detailed above, it is important to consider while major professional sport teams and leagues may be enacting some of these marketing practices, there are broad array of professional minor league teams, small college athletic programs, and new teams/leagues that would benefit from focusing their efforts on enhancing pride feelings among their fanbase through the utilization of the team brand logo, the creation of rituals and tradition like fight songs, and tapping into their history as a means to make their team and fanbase feel prestigious and distinct.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
There were several limitations with this study as well as numerous avenues for future research. First, the findings of this study could be considered contextual and cannot necessarily be extrapolated (external validity) beyond the current context (professional soccer and baseball). With that being said, Japan is characterized as moderate levels of individualism and power distance and can be viewed as an uncertainty avoiding country (Hofstede 1983). While Japanese people tend to be motivated to maintain close relationships with others, previous cross-country research suggests the mean scores of Japanese spectators’ psychological affiliation with their favorite teams, sense of achievement, and social interaction among fans are close to those of American spectators (James et al. 2009). Further, the factor structure of the quality–satisfaction–loyalty chain across Japan and the United States is similar to and comparable with each other in the contexts of spectator sports (Yoshida and James 2010) and mobile phones (Frank et al. 2014). These studies together imply that consumer decision-making involving symbolic (e.g., affiliation and achievement), social (e.g., social interaction), utilitarian (e.g., quality), and hedonic (e.g., satisfaction) evaluations does not differ between Japan and the United States. Therefore, we believe that our study findings can be applicable to other cultural contexts including both individualist (e.g., the United States and Great Britain) and collectivist societies (e.g., Korea and Taiwan). More accurately, this study should be replicated in other settings (i.e., different sports, levels of competition, different countries) to determine how pride feelings influence the process of developing team and fan community identification. Specifically, it would be interesting to ascertain the differential role of consumptive vehicles in different sport settings with different fan groups. For example, the role of consumptive vehicles in other settings will most likely yield different results depending on the sport, league, and country involved.
Second, the omission of important variables is a potential limitation of this study. For example, Decrop and Derbaix (2010) included glory of the present and glory of the town as well as numerous sport consumptive vehicles (e.g., colors, apparel, team, fan community, player) that did not work in the current setting. Therefore, with different sport contexts and fan communities (especially well-established fan bases with ingrained rituals and traditions), it would be interesting to determine how pride feelings toward the omitted consumptive vehicles impact team and fan community identification.
Third, very similar, but distinct emotions were involved with the survey items to measure pride feelings, although these items were consistent with previous research (Wilcox et al. 2011; Laverie et al. 2002). In this study, pride feelings were considered status indicators of a sport team which are different from consumers’ self-esteem and confidence in a strict sense of the definition. Future research needs to generate survey items in order to measure specific elements of pride using status indicators such as reputation, prestige, recognition, and status (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Tyler and Blader 2003).
Fourth, in both settings, we encountered some initial issues with model fit indices. Specifically, the χ2/df ratio as well as the RMSEA did not initially meet accepted cutoff values in either the soccer or baseball contexts. After an examination of modification indices, the RMSEA value in the soccer context (.094) reached a value that can be considered “mediocre” fit (Browne and Cudeck 1993) while the baseball context yielded a RMSEA value (.105) that falls slightly outside the realm of acceptable fit.
Finally, we did not examine how consumer behavior is contingent on consumer characteristics such as demographic, psychological, and relational moderators (Yoshida and Gordon 2012). A suggestion for future research is to examine the moderating effects of these demographic, psychological, and relational variables on the relationship among pride feelings, team identification, and fan community identification.
The developed pride typology represents advancement in our understanding of pride in the sport (applicable to the non-sport setting) realm by developing and testing a pride typology and examining the impact of pride feelings toward consumptive vehicles on the team and fan community identification process. The proposed typology and recommendations for future research provide numerous avenues to continue the advancement of our understanding of how pride works in not only the sport context but also the general business context as well.
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Gordon, B.S., Yoshida, M., Nakazawa, M. et al. The Role of Pride Feelings in the Team and Fan Community Identification Processes: An Empirical Examination in Professional Sport. Corp Reputation Rev 24, 76–94 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-019-00092-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-019-00092-y