Introduction

This study encompasses an investigation regarding HIWPs, how they can play role in fostering proactive work behavior among employees in public service organizations (PSOs) within a transitioning economy (TE). It owes its importance in the field of public services management as China is undergoing shift towards a free market model from its original command economy model, there remains a lack of unanimous celebration of this transformation within the nation, with deep-seated remnants of the former economic system persisting (Huang, 2022). To a considerable extent, the triumph of this transition hinges on the efficacy of HRPs at the organizational level. Merely enforcing adherence to governmental regulations and internal organizational statutes falls short when addressing the evolving requirements of a transitioning society. Instead, PSOs must bridge the gap between themselves and their constituents by fostering an environment that encourages their employees to embrace EPWB (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b). This entails challenging established norms and becoming more attuned to the public's needs (de Fátima Nery et al., 2020; Sonnentag & Spychala, 2012). Therefore, the primary objective of this research is to scrutinize the impact of HIWPs on fostering EPWB within the workforce of PSOs.

In China, the number of PSOs employees switching jobs or abandoning career in PSOs has been 34% in 2015 (Hu et al., 2022). Employees from various PSOs including police have left their organizations which pose a detrimental problem to the organizations as such resignations not only distort day to day operations but also undermine the implementation of various public service policies (Zhang, 2023). The public service quality is also deteriorated owing to low motivation and absence of proactive work behavior. To address this problems HRPs have demonstrated their ability to shape the attitudes and behaviors of workers, even motivating them to take more initiative (Malik et al., 2022; Putra et al., 2020). Proactive work behavior, while influenced by various HR practices, consistently involves some level of social interaction, which serves as an indicator of the organization's commitment to its HR policies and procedures (Zhou et al., 2021). HIWPs, on the other hand, are characterized by the equitable distribution of authority and information. This includes but is not limited to aspects like business processes, outcomes, significant rewards, and comprehensive knowledge of the work system. In essence, HIWPs represent an investment in human capital (Casu et al., 2021). Within public service organizations, HIWPs possess the potential to inspire employees to actively participate in activities that benefit the organization's well-being (Froese et al., 2022). Additionally, they foster social interactions among employees (Kurtessis et al., 2017).

According to the SET perspective, employees should view human resources activities as an investment in themselves. This perception, in turn, should lead to the manifestation of positive attitudes and behaviors, including commitment and EPWB, as a response to these practices (Blau, 1964; Mehmood et al., 2022, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). As a consequence of this, one may conclude that the EPWB displayed by public officials is a reflection of their commitment, which, in turn, is fostered by the fact that they participate in HIWPs. When compared to employees who are not participating in HIWPs, those who tend to exhibit a higher level of commitment to their organizations as well as a larger propensity to proactively question the status quo for the purpose of improving public services. This is the case because HIWPs encourage employees to take an active role in improving their workplaces. Additionally, the idea of PSM, which is defined by the altruistic desire to serve the public good (Tummers & Bekkers, 2014), augments the influence of employee commitment. As a result, it is realistic to predict that both PSM and employee commitment may engage with HIWPs to implant EPWB (Froese et al., 2022), i.e., EPWB, among public service employees.

In this study, which employed SET as proposed by Blau in 1964, the authors embarked on an exploration of the interrelationships among HIWPs, employees’ commitment, employees’ proactive work behavior, and public service motivation. The primary objective of this investigation was to scrutinize how HIWPs within PSOs influence EPWB through their impact on EC. While previous research has delved into the relation among HRPs and proactivity in government sector employees (Coun et al., 2022), the manifestation of this connection in public sector employees, particularly in TEs like China's, has remained relatively unexplored. As a result, this study makes a significant contribution by addressing this crucial gap in the existing body of literature on public service administration. What sets this study apart is its specific focus on HIWPs, as opposed to more general HR practices explored in earlier research, in order to investigate their specific influence on fostering EC and EPWB. Furthermore, this research aimed to unravel the role played by PSM in reinforcing the connections between HIWPs, EC, and EPWB. Additionally, a novel aspect of this investigation was the utilization of a moderated-mediation approach to determine the extent to which PSM moderates employees’ commitment's mediation of the relationship between HIWPs and EPWB. This unique component of the study constitutes a noteworthy contribution to the field of literature on public service management.

Theoretical background and hypotheses

High-involvement work practices and employees’ commitment

High-Involvement Work Practices (HIWPs) represent an organizational approach aimed at creating a work environment in which workers feel respected and valued through active participation in significant decision-making processes. The successful implementation of HIWPs has been demonstrated to enhance business outcomes by increasing employees' motivation, output, and dedication to their jobs. This, in turn, leads to employees having a greater personal and financial stake in the company's success. By aligning the goals of management and staff, HIWPs improve workplace relationships, consequently boosting morale and productivity (Guest, 2017; Van Beurden et al., 2021). For instance, if an organization is dedicated to helping its employees develop professionally, it would allocate resources to educate its workers. In doing so, the firm improves employees' skills and output, thereby enhancing employee engagement without the need for monetary rewards (Zeithaml et al., 2020). Therefore, HIWPs enable and encourage people to make collaborative contributions to their business, often through incentives and praise (Escrig-Tena et al., 2018). This is achieved by granting workers more freedom and responsibility in their roles. Overall, HIWPs enhance workers' competence, authority, engagement, and commitment to the organization's mission.

Siangchokyoo et al. (2020), employees’ commitment signifies the emotional bond that employees establish with their organization, as well as the congruence between their own aspirations and the organizational aims. Furthermore, employees’ commitment encompasses elements like learning, enthusiasm, alliance, confidence, and eagerness. The social exchange that transpires between workers and their organization possesses the potential to fortify employees’ commitment. For instance, considering that employees' commitment is driven by a strong emotional attachment to their company and a feeling of satisfaction in being associated with it (Hoch et al., 2018), devoted employees are more inclined to remain with their organization out of choice rather than obligation. This is because employees’ commitment is characterized by a genuine passion for their company and a feeling of satisfaction in their involvement.

Moreover, in accordance with Xerri and Brunetto (2013), the SET standpoint implies that when employees perceive that their employer is advancing in their development through HIWPs, they are more inclined to reciprocate by engaging in behaviors that benefit the organization. This reciprocation demonstrates appreciation for the organization's investment in their professional growth. In the context of organizational adoption of HIWPs, it has been observed that employees tend to view such adoption as a sign of the organization's commitment to invest in their skill development through training initiatives, actively involve them in decision-making processes, and duly recognize and reward their valuable contributions. (Peccei & Van De Voorde, 2019). This is because HIWPs engage employees in the decision-making process within the organization. According to Boon et al. (2019), employees may manifest their gratitude by heightening their level of commitment and actively supporting the organization's objectives. Berkovich and Eyal (2015) has also noted that employees are more likely to demonstrate greater commitment to their employer when the organization exhibits a higher level of commitment to them. Given these considerations, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1

Perceiving a higher degree of HIWPs is linked with an increased level of employee commitment within PSOs.

Employees’ commitment and employees’ proactive work behavior

According to Amabile and Pratt (2016), the concept of employees' proactive work behavior (EPWB) revolves around an intrinsic drive and personal initiative aimed at pursuing future personal goals aligned with organizational objectives. Consequently, EPWB is marked by actively challenging the status quo rather than passively accepting the current state of affairs. Proactive individuals take the initiative to prepare for changes in their environment or their personal development (Escrig-Tena et al., 2018; Sonnentag & Spychala, 2012). EPWB can manifest in various ways, including actions such as whistleblowing, where individuals raise significant concerns (Lyons & Kuron, 2014), persistent pursuit of issues until they are seriously addressed (Mowbray et al., 2015), active engagement in problem-solving exercises (Ababneh, 2021), and a commitment to continuously improving work structures, processes, and routines (Bakker & Albrecht, 2018). Conversely, employees express their commitment through behaviors that demonstrate their affiliation, such as actively participating in initiatives that advance organizational objectives and align with the organization's welfare. According to Kleine et al. (2019), employee commitment can also manifest in behaviors that involve a dedication to the organization's objectives, missions, and actions that benefit both the organization and its stakeholders. Consequently, employee commitment can also be viewed as a form of EPWB (Cui & Zhang, 2021).

Expanding upon the foundational principles of SET, it can be argued that the implementation of HIWPs with the aim of fostering employee commitment is likely to manifest in employees' behavior. In particular, employees who exhibit commitment to their work are inclined to demonstrate behaviors that reflect an emotional attachment to the organization, actively advocating for the organization's well-being and that of its stakeholders. Their heightened work ethic and unwavering dedication are instrumental in aligning with the organization's goals, actions, and strategies (Grant & Ashford, 2008; Khan et al., 2019). This level of dedication has the potential to materialize as voluntary and proactive work behaviors with the aim of serving the greater good (Boccoli et al., 2023), even in the absence of external incentives (Markovits et al., 2007). Based on this rationale, it is reasonable to anticipate a positive relation among employee commitment and EPWB in PSOs. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis.

H2

In PSOs, increased employee commitment is associated with a positive relationship with EPWB.

Mediating role of employees’ commitment

Based on the preceding arguments, it is evident that social exchange within an organizational context can foster commitment, consequently facilitating the emergence of EPWB (Wilmot & Ones, 2022). From a SET viewpoint, the association among HIWPs and EPWB can be elucidated through the indirect impact of employee commitment. HIWPs represent a strategic investment in the workforce, as discussed by Luu (2023), signifying an organization's dedication to nurturing and developing its human capital over the long term. According to Wang et al. (2020), employees may feel a sense of obligation to reciprocate when they perceive their organization as deserving of their commitment, leading to the development of an emotional bond with it. Individuals may feel a sense of gratitude and, in turn, engage in efforts to contribute to the organization as a way of reciprocating the investment made in them. Within the framework of SET, this phenomenon can be understood as the manifestation of a relational dynamic characterized by mutual exchange and fairness (Mitonga-Monga, 2020). Mehmood et al. (2023a, 2023b, 2023c) suggest that employees are likely to feel a sense of duty to perform effectively in their roles due to the benefits derived from HIWPs. Drawing from Blau's (1964) research, individuals may develop a sense of indebtedness toward an organization if they perceive that it has positively contributed to their overall well-being. Consequently, they may exhibit behaviors that benefit the organization as a form of reciprocation. The stronger the perception of their organization's demonstration of care through HIWPs, the greater the sense of obligation they will experience to reciprocate by displaying corresponding beneficial behaviors. Thus, HIWPs have the potential to influence employee conduct in ways that benefit the organization, specifically by fostering employees' enthusiasm for the organization's success and cultivating their alignment with its objectives.

According to the SET standpoint, it is likely that employees who derive benefits from HIWPs will exhibit proactive work behavior to make valuable contributions to their organization's overall success. HIWPs, including training programs, have the potential to impart knowledge to employees regarding new avenues for professional growth and instill them with fresh sets of values (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b). As suggested by Wang and Brower (2019), empowered employees have the potential to exhibit proactive behavior by participating in process redesign efforts to enhance performance. In essence, HIWPs represent a strategic allocation of resources toward personnel development, enabling employees to take initiative in advancing both their professional and personal goals by enhancing their capacity to serve the public. The relationship between HIWPs and EPWB can be further elucidated by considering employee commitment as an explanatory mechanism within the framework of SET. Analyzing the effect of HIWPs on employee commitment provides valuable insights into their role in shaping EPWB. Employee commitment signifies that individuals uphold their dedication regardless of external incentives (Purba et al., 2015), leading dedicated employees to be more inclined to align with organizational goals and surpass their usual duties to serve the public interest. Proactive behavior of this nature serves as a way for committed employees to voluntarily contribute to their firms. Consequently, we can expect a connection among employee commitment and EPWB, with employee commitment acting as a mediator in the association among HIWPs and EPWB. Therefore, we put forth the following hypothesis:

H3

In PSOs, employee commitment serves as a mediator in the positive relationship between HIWPs and EPWB.

Moderating role of public service motivation

PSM represents a pro-social value that inspires conduct beneficial to society. It is crucial to distinguish PSM from employee outcomes, as emphasized by Tao and Wen (2023). This factor similarly impacts the performance of public service organizations, as noted by Bao and Zhong (2023). According to Schwarz et al. (2020), public employees with higher PSM levels demonstrate a commitment to serving the public impartially, exhibit selflessness in their actions, and display compassion while pursuing civic interests. They strongly dedicate themselves to delivering services for the general public, upholding societal principles, and advancing the collective welfare. From a SET viewpoint, it is reasonable to anticipate that employees actively engaged in HIWPs would feel a compelling urge to reciprocate this investment by fostering a robust commitment to their organization’s objectives and a fervent desire for its prosperity. Additionally, PSM could potentially act as a moderating role in the connection among HIWPs and employee commitment. The essence of public service is rooted in feelings of care, concern, and a strong sense of duty toward a higher purpose, as illustrated by an enduring commitment that goes beyond immediate obligations (Osborne et al., 2021). PSM can be conceptualized as a broad, altruistic drive to engage in actions that benefit a community, state, or society, without being driven by personal or organizational motives (Perry et al., 2010). As PSM increases, so does commitment (Battaglio et al., 2019). Therefore, public servants with elevated PSM are more inclined to cultivate strong commitment to an organization actively involving its employees in HIWPs. This commitment stems from their intrinsic desire to serve the public, setting them apart from peers with lower PSM levels. Employees with high PSM often exhibit characteristics such as selflessness (Ritz et al., 2016), which is expected to manifest in their commitment through constructive actions that contribute to business and community betterment. Consequently, the emergence of EPWB can also be attributed to the impact of PSM. Employees deeply committed to public service may actively engage in efforts to challenge existing norms and enhance the quality of public services.

Furthermore, Van Beurden et al. (2021) suggest that individuals with PSM, inclined towards altruistic behavior, may experience heightened emotional responses when participating in HIWPs. Instances like these lead to an increased sense of social exchange, resulting in more pronounced responses to HIWPs. Consequently, individuals of this nature may exhibit higher levels of EPWB due to their heightened perception of organizational care, which, in turn, bolsters their employee commitment and subsequently enhances their EPWB. Building upon this foundation, we proceed to articulate our subsequent hypothesis as follows.

H4

PSM moderates the positive connection between HIWPs and employee commitment, such that, this link is notably stronger among employees with high PSM levels compared to those with lower PSM levels in PSOs.

In our study, we have identified public service motivation as a pivotal moderator that exerts influence over the mediating impact of employee commitment on the relation among HIWPs and EPWB. To elaborate, we propose that employees’ commitment serves as a mediating factor in the linkage between HIWPs and EPWB. Simultaneously, we assert that PSM serves as a moderator in the relationship between HIWPs and employee commitment, in line with the conceptual framework articulated by Edwards and Lambert (2007) and Zhang and Teng (2023). Moreover, we posit that these moderating factors, particularly PSM, exert an influence on the strength of the mediating link between HIWPs and EPWB, mediated through employees’ commitment.

In summary, we hypothesize the following relationships:

H5

PSM moderates the meditating effect of HIWPs on EPWB through employee commitment, such that the indirect effect is stronger for employees with high (versus low) levels of PSM in PSOs.

Methodology

Data collection and procedure

The data for this study were sourced from Master of Public Administration (MPA) students enrolled in prestigious universities located in eastern China. In preparation for the survey, we proactively engaged with the relevant university directors to obtain comprehensive data on the total number of MPA students. Subsequently, we distributed survey questionnaires to a cohort of 900 MPA students who concurrently served as full-time public service employees within diverse government departments. To mitigate the potential influence of common method bias (CMB), data collection was conducted across three distinct phases, each separated by a one-month interval. In order to minimize the impact of social desirability biases, we assured respondents of the confidentiality and anonymity of their provided information, following recommendations by (Chung & Monroe, 2003; Khan et al., 2023). We emphasized that their responses would be analyzed as a collective whole rather than individually and solely for the purpose of this research. Additionally, we underscored that there were not definitively correct or incorrect answers, aiming to further reduce social desirability bias, in line with the approach suggested by Randall and Gibson (1990). Furthermore, respondents were given the option to exit the questionnaire at any stage to ensure their comfort and participation. Employing a time-lagged design in data collection, as recognized in prior studies (Mehmood et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Williams & McGonagle, 2016), offers several advantages. This approach allows for multiple surveys to be conducted for a specific research inquiry or data to be gathered from diverse sources at varying time intervals, thereby addressing concerns related to common source and common method bias (Mehmood et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Shang et al., 2022). Furthermore, this method permits respondents to reflect and deliberate before recording their final responses, aligning with the principles advocated by Kwan et al. (2022) and Shah et al. (2023). Furthermore, we employed distinct surveys to collect data from these public service employees. The initial phase of data collection focused on gathering information pertaining to demographics, moderating variables, and independent variables. After a one-month gap, the subsequent phase centered on the collection of data concerning mediating variables. Finally, following an additional one-month interval, we proceeded to collect data relating to dependent variables. In order to safeguard the privacy of respondents and minimize the influence of social desirability bias, respondents were explicitly informed that the study was solely intended for academic research purposes. All questionnaires were maintained as anonymous, ensuring they could not be traced back to individual participants. In appreciation for their questionnaire completion, every participant was given a gift coupon valued at approximately 25 RMB.

To optimize response quality, the survey underwent a meticulous translation process. It was initially translated into Chinese and then back-translated into English with the assistance of language specialists, preserving translation fidelity through the back-translation method as outlined by Brislin (1980). The data collection phase spanned a three-month duration and included three distinct measurement time points. To facilitate response tracking across these time points, each participant was assigned a unique identity number, which was pre-marked on each questionnaire. At Time 1, we extended invitations to 1,500 public service employees to complete a survey that covered their demographic details, such as gender, age, experience, and education, along with questionnaire about high-involvement work practices and public service motivation. Impressively, we received 1059 usable responses, constituting a response rate of 70.60%. One month later, at Time 2, we once again reached out to these 1059 public service employees, this time focusing on questions related to commitment. This effort yielded 904 completed responses, resulting in an impressive response rate of 85.36%. At Time 3, individuals employed in public service who had previously participated in the Time 2 survey were approached to respond to questions related to proactive work behavior. During this particular instance, a total of 785 questionnaires were collected, demonstrating a response rate of 86.83%. Among the final sample participants, 48.54% were male and 51.46% were female. A significant majority, 77.84%, had obtained a higher education degree from a university. The participants' mean age was approximately 33.84 years, and their average employment experience was 5.4 years. The respondents’ demographics are displayed in Table 1. We adopted the approach proposed by Goodman and Blum (1996) to conduct a multivariate analysis of variance. This analysis aimed to investigate potential systematic variations in responses among three distinct respondent groups: individuals who completed all three surveys, those who solely finished the first survey, and participants who completed only the first and second surveys. Our findings revealed no significant disparities in terms of gender, age, experience, or education across these respondent groups. Consequently, our study substantially mitigated attrition bias, indicating that nonresponse bias does not appear to be a prominent concern.

Table 1 Respondent’s profile
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Measures

In the context of our research conducted in China, we initially employed measurements that were originally formulated in English. To ensure the congruence of their meanings, our approach involved a two-step translation process. Specifically, one of the authors translated all measurements from English to Chinese, and then the second author translated the Chinese into English, in accordance with the method described by Brislin (1980). It is noteworthy that the core content of these measures remained unchanged throughout this process. In an effort to validate the comprehensibility of the questionnaires, we conducted interviews with several potential participants in the survey. This invaluable feedback allowed us to make minor modifications to the measures, ensuring their applicability within the specific context of our data collection setting, as outlined by Mehmood et al., (2023a, 2023b, 2023c). To ensure both face and content validity, we engaged a panel of experts to review the adapted scales. These panel members assessed the scales by considering the provided definitions of the constructs and then rated the suitability of the items within each scale. We applied the sum score decision rule to aggregate the assessments provided by all the expert judges. For uniformity and ease of response, we employed a five-point Likert-scale for all measurements.

High-Involvement Work Practices: Searle et al.’s. (2011) nine-items scale was used to assess high-involvement work practices. An illustrative item from this scale was, "Employees have the opportunity to achieve a work/life balance." The Cronbach's alpha of this scale was 0.917.

Public Service Motivation: The construct of public service motivation was gauged through a five-item scale adapted from Miao et al. (2018) and later employed by Lee et al. (2020). An example item in this scale read, "I place significant importance on meaningful public service." The reliability of this scale was 0.856.

Employees' Commitment: The set of six-items from Allen and Meyer (1990) was used and subsequently utilized by Puni et al. (2021). An exemplar item in this scale was, "Top management in my organization pays attention to ideas proposed by other employees." The Cronbach's alpha of this scale was 0.897.

Employees' Proactive Work Behavior: The measurement of employees' proactive work behavior was conducted using an eight-item scale adapted from the work of Parker, Williams, and Turner (2006). An example item from this scale was, "Suggesting ideas for improvements to managers, supervisors, or colleagues." The scale exhibited good reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.917.

Results

Common method bias (CMB)

Before proceeding with data analysis, we performed tests to evaluate the assumptions of both univariate and multivariate analyses. Each variable in the study underwent scrutiny for missing values, outliers, normality, and multicollinearity. In order to mitigate any potential CMB concerns, we implemented procedural remedies as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2003). These procedures involved ensuring response anonymity and confidentiality to reduce the likelihood of social desirability bias in participant responses. Additionally, participants were explicitly informed that there were no right or wrong answers, and their responses would be treated as confidential. Additionally, a CFA was performed with all respondent-rated variables to examine the presence of a single method factor. However, the results indicated a poor fit to the data: (χ2 = 2689.31, df = 350; CFI = 0.561, TLI = 0.514, and RMSEA = 0.112), suggesting no CMB effect. Additionally, we conducted Harman's single-factor test, which revealed the presence of multiple distinct factors. The first factor accounted for only 27.68% of the variance, suggesting that CMB was unlikely to be a significant issue in our survey. To address concerns related to multicollinearity, we employed SPSS 24.0 to calculate the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). All VIF values were below the threshold of 10, as recommended by Hair et al. (2014), indicating the absence of significant multicollinearity issues in our study. The sample adequacy indicator (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin) was also examined and showed a value of 0.837, confirming the sample size was sufficient. Furthermore, internal consistency of the measurements was assessed using CRs, and the CR values ranged from 0.868 to 0.929, exceeding the commonly accepted threshold of 0.80 (Hair et al., 2014). These CR values provided further evidence of the lack of CMB concerns in our study.

Descriptive statistics

Table 2 shows a comprehensive view of the correlations between the study constructs, along with the accompanying descriptive statistics. Notably, high-involvement work practices exhibited significant positive correlations with both employees' commitment (r = 0.253, p < 0.01) and public service motivation (r = 0.362, p < 0.01). Likewise, employees' commitment displayed a positive correlation with employees' proactive work behavior (r = 0.357, p < 0.01). Furthermore, it is worth highlighting that public service motivation was positively correlated with employees' commitment (r = 0.274, p < 0.01). Importantly, all the correlation coefficients between these studied variables remained below 0.4, indicating the absence of multicollinearity issues. These findings lay a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis of our hypotheses.

Table 2 Correlation matrix and descriptive statistics
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CFA

We conducted CFA using Mplus 7.0 software (Muthén & Muthén, 2012) to assess the distinctiveness of HIWPs, employees' commitment, EPWB, and PSM. Initially, we examined the baseline model encompassing all four variables. This baseline model exhibited a robust fit, with all fit indices meeting acceptable criteria (χ2 = 684.37, df = 344, χ2/df = 1.989, TLI = 0.959, CFI = 0.976, RMSEA = 0.037), as detailed in Table 3. Notably, the baseline model's fit index outperformed that of alternative models, underscoring the distinctiveness of these four constructs. Furthermore, the factor loadings for all four constructs significantly exceeded 0.60 (see Table 4). Additionally, we computed the AVE, yielding values of 0.562 for employees' proactive work behavior, 0.623 for employees' commitment, 0.573 for public service motivation, and 0.595 for high-involvement work practices. Each of these values surpassed the threshold of 0.50, thus affirming convergent validity. Moreover, as displayed in Table 2, the square root of the AVE for each construct exceeded its correlations with other variables, thus providing additional evidence of their discriminant validity. Collectively, these findings offer robust evidence supporting the validity of the measures employed for our key variables, thus establishing their suitability for subsequent hypothesis testing.

Table 3 Results of model’s comparison
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Table 4 Variables reliabilities and validities
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Hypothesis testing

In accordance with the recommendations outlined by Preacher and Kelley (2011), we applied a bootstrap approach using the PROCESS macro to scrutinize the hypothesized moderated-mediation model. Our analysis involved a hierarchical multiple regression with unstandardized coefficients. Specifically, we employed PROCESS Model 7 to examine the conditional indirect effect and evaluate regression coefficients, following the methodology established by Hayes (2018). Hypothesis 1 posited a positive link between HIWPs and employees' commitment. As revealed in Table 5, our findings support Hypothesis 1, with high-involvement work practices demonstrating a significant positive association with employees' commitment [β = 0.367, SE = 0.039, 95% CI (0.2921, 0.4095)]. Likewise, Hypothesis 2 postulated a positive link between employees' commitment and employees' proactive work behavior. Our results, as presented in Table 5, confirm Hypothesis 2, with employees' commitment exhibiting a positive relationship with employees' proactive work behavior [β = 0.427, SE = 0.054, 95% CI (0.3954, 0.4966)].

Table 5 Results for direct and Moderation related hypotheses
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To investigate Hypothesis 3, Hypothesis 4, and Hypothesis 5, encompassing the indirect effect, moderation effects, and moderated mediation, respectively, we adopted a bootstrapping approach in line with the methodology proposed by Preacher and Hayes (2004). Specifically, we utilized Model 7 based on 10,000 bootstrapped samples, with 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals, as suggested by Hayes (2018). Hypothesis 3 hypothesized that employees' commitment mediates the link between HIWPs and EPWB. As shown in Table 6, our analysis supports Hypothesis 3. HIWPs were positively related to employees' commitment (Model 1: β = 0.367, SE = 0.039, p < 0.01), and employees' commitment, in turn, exhibited a positive relationship with employees' proactive work behavior (Model 2: β = 0.427, SE = 0.059, p < 0.01). Furthermore, our PROCESS analysis revealed a significant indirect effect, indicating that HIWPs influence EPWB through employees' commitment [indirect effect = 0.1567, SE = 0.045, 95% CI (0.1082, 0.2167)]. This result validates Hypothesis 3. Additionally, we corroborated the stated indirect effect of employees' commitment using the Sobel (1982) test (z = 5.5924, p < 0.05), further supporting Hypothesis 3.

Table 6 PROCESS Result
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Hypothesis 4 examined the moderating influence of PSM in the connection among HIWPs and employees' commitment. As outlined in Table 6, the interaction between public service motivation and high-involvement work practices yielded significance and indicated a positive relationship with employees' commitment (Model 1: β = 0.251, SE = 0.027, p < 0.01). To visually illustrate this interaction, Fig. 2 was generated. Figure 1 presents the link between HIWPs and employees' commitment at two distinct levels: one standard deviation above the mean and one standard deviation below the mean for PSM. As observed in Fig. 2, high-involvement work practices exhibited a notably stronger positive association with employees' commitment when public service motivation was high (β = 0.618, p < 0.05), compared to when public service motivation was at a lower level (β = 0.367, p < 0.05). These findings provide compelling support for Hypothesis 4a.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Interactive effect of HIWPs and PSM on employees’ commitment

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Fig. 2
figure 2

Conditional indirect effect of HIWPs on EPWB

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H5 suggested that PSM moderates the mediating effect between HIWPs and EPWB via employees' commitment. In essence, we hypothesized that the strength of this indirect effect would be more pronounced when public service motivation was higher. The results, detailed in Table 7, confirm this hypothesis. Notably, the size of the difference in the mediating effect of HIWPs on EPWB through employees' commitment was significantly positive at both high (+ 1SD) [indirect effect = 0.2331, SE = 0.024, 95% CI (LL = 0.1714, UL = 0.2832)] and low (-1SD) [indirect effect = 0.1058, SE = 0.045, 95% CI (LL = 0.0667, UL = 0.1496)] levels of PSM. Furthermore, the moderated-mediation index did not encompass 0 [Index: 0.0953, Bootstrap SE = 0.0357, 95% CI (0.0098, 0.1854)], signifying the significant influence of the moderator, i.e., PSM, on the mediating effect. Consequently, as posited in Hypothesis 5, these findings corroborate that PSM indeed moderates the indirect link between HIWPs and WPWB through employees' commitment. To enhance the understanding of these results, we generated a graphical representation of the conditional indirect effect employing the MD2C templates, presented in Fig. 2. The visual representation aligns with our Hypothesis 5, further reinforcing the role of PSM as a moderator in this mediated relationship.

Table 7 Results of conditional indirect effects across levels of HIWPs on EPWB at (± 1 of PSM)
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Discussion

The primary objective of this research was to investigate the interplay among HIWPs, employee commitment, EPWB, and PSM within PSOs. The study effectively examined and substantiated all hypotheses, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of these variables, resulting in the acceptance of all five hypotheses. H1 posited that a stronger perception of HIWPs would be associated with enhanced EC in public service organizations. This hypothesis was confirmed in the current study. Research has shown that organizations implementing HIWPs tend to foster a supportive and empowering work environment, consequently leading to increased commitment (Kuvaas, 2007). These findings suggest that when employees perceive their organization as adopting HIWPs, they are more inclined to develop a stronger commitment to their work and the organization. H2 focused on the relationship between EC and EPWB, proposing that greater EC would positively relate to EPWB. Supporting evidence can be found in studies demonstrating that higher levels of organizational commitment are linked to increased employee engagement in proactive behaviors (Salmela-Aro & Upadyaya, 2018). Additionally, a meta-analysis has revealed a robust positive link between organizational commitment and proactive work behaviors (Strauss et al., 2012). These findings indicate that employees with higher commitment levels are more likely to exhibit proactive work behavior, taking initiative and actively contributing to organizational improvement. H3 proposed that employees’ commitment acts as a mediator in the relation between HIWPs and EPWB. The results of this hypothesis testing align with expectations, leading to its acceptance. Previous research has shown that organizational commitment acts as a mediator between HR policies and outcomes, such as job performance and organizational citizenship behavior (Fernandez et al., 2015). These findings suggest that EC serves as a crucial mechanism through which HIWPs influence EPWB. According to H4, in the public sector, employees with higher levels of PSM exhibited a stronger link between HIWPs and emotional commitment. This hypothesis is consistent with findings indicating that employees with greater PSM may possess a stronger desire to engage in meaningful work and display higher levels of dedication (Miao et al., 2018). These results suggest that PSM has the potential to bolster the relationship between HIWPs and EC, as employees driven by a desire to serve the public may be more responsive to HIWPs. Finally, H5 proposed that individuals with a high PSM would be more susceptible to the meditating influence of EC on the HIWPs-EPWB relationship. Previous research has shown that PSM moderates the relation between HR practices and emotional job involvement (Luu, 2018). Additionally, research in the public sector has demonstrated that PSM moderates the relation between HR processes and attitudes and behaviors exhibited in the workplace (Mehmood et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). These findings suggest that individuals with a high level of PSM may experience a stronger indirect impact of EC on the connection between HIWPs and EPWB.

Theoretical implications

This study contributes to the field of public service management literature by offering theoretical extensions in various aspects. The study authors offer valuable insights into the relationship between HIWPs and EPWB by investigating the meditating influence of employee commitment within the framework of SET, as initially proposed by Blau (1964). SET is commonly employed to clarify the reciprocal connections between influential hierarchical factors, such as transformational leadership or organizational support, and the discretionary behaviors exhibited by employees beyond their formal job requirements, which are referred to as extra-role performance behaviors. However, there has been relatively less emphasis on examining the relationship between HR practices and EPWB, as demonstrated in the work of Tavares et al. (2016). This study addresses this gap by exploring the relationship between HIWPs and EPWB in PSOs, with a specific focus on the indirect effect of employee commitment.

Furthermore, uncovering the moderating influence of PSM on the association among HIWPs and employee commitment within the SET framework enhances our understanding of the underlying mechanism through which HIWPs influence employee commitment. This social interaction between an employer and its employees signifies a reciprocal exchange that extends beyond individual interests and economic considerations, as posited by Rousseau and Parks (1993). Furthermore, the concept of PSM embodies a selfless desire to contribute to the betterment of society and encompasses qualities such as a commitment to public principles, altruism, and a willingness to make personal sacrifices, as noted by Perry and Vandenabeele (2015). According to Lavigna (2012), when applied to the goals and mission of a public service organization, PSM nurtures the emotional and ethical principles that enable personnel to prioritize the needs of stakeholders over their own personal interests. Therefore, public service employees who possess a strong sense of PSM respond favorably to HIWPs and actively engage in proactive efforts to serve citizens.

Our study adds to the expanding body of literature within the realm of public service management. In recent years, there has been a noteworthy emphasis on conducting empirical studies to evaluate the influence of HR practices on employee outcomes in PSOs, as highlighted by Ciobanu et al. (2019). Hence, our analysis of PSM's role as a moderator in the connection between HIWPs and EPWB via employee commitment holds significant relevance in the current landscape. Previous research has also delved into the interactive effect of PSM on the relation among leadership and job performance in government settings (Mussagulova & van der Wal, 2021). However, our study extends this body of literature by expanding the concept that HIWPs also influence employee outcomes (Boxall et al., 2015). In our study, we propose that the implementation of HIWPs can be a strategic investment in employees (Mehmood et al., 2022). These practices, which align employees' goals with those of the organization, hold the potential to fortify public service values within the workforce, especially among individuals with a robust public service motivation. In countries such as China, currently experiencing a gradual economic transformation as documented by Zhu and Lin (2022), the adoption of EPWB can play a crucial role in shaping the pace of this transition. This can be achieved through the enhancement of public services, thereby contributing to the management of public values. Hence, it is imperative for such nations to prioritize their focus on EPWB, an aspect that has received limited attention from them (Demircioglu & Chowdhury, 2021). This study extends existing research on EPWB by applying it to the public service sector. Furthermore, we introduce the concept of PSM to shed light on the underlying mechanisms of EPWB in this specific context.

Moreover, our study constitutes a valuable addition to the existing body of literature on human resource management within the realm of public service management. Our findings suggest that HIWPs have the potential to foster EPWB among public sector employees by promoting employee commitment. These findings align with previous research. For instance, Zhong et al. (2016) have illustrated that a range of human resource practices, including involvement in decision-making, performance management, and opportunities for promotion, can produce favorable outcomes for employees. According to their findings, engaging employees in decision-making processes is more effective at fostering a sense of psychological ownership compared to performance management, promotion prospects, and training and development. In the context of public service, granting employees the authority to make decisions that enhance the efficient provision of services to the public can improve employee performance and overall service delivery effectiveness. Moreover, the implementation of training and development programs can offer distinct advantages in the cultivation of skills pertinent to public service and the fostering of a commitment to public service principles, ultimately bolstering employee dedication. Unlike the conventional approach of simply imparting information about PSOs, HIWPs can engender dedication through meticulously crafted training sessions (Scrimpshire et al., 2023). In the modification of performance appraisal within the context of HIWPs, it is essential to consider the inclusion of feedback from various sources, rather than relying solely on evaluations conducted by managers. Many public sector organizations in China continue to employ traditional evaluation systems, which restrict employees' autonomy within these entities. Furthermore, this traditional approach lacks sufficient provisions to incentivize and reward exceptional performance in the realm of EPWB.

Practical implications

Our research model can provide guidance for management professionals in PSOs when determining their managerial actions. Supervisors and managers within these organizations can leverage the potential to enhance employee commitment and EPWB by implementing HIWPs tailored to foster these behaviors among their employees. To begin with, it is crucial to design training programs that go beyond the mere dissemination of information about organizational protocols and guidelines. These programs should also instill principles related to public interest. These principles encompass going beyond legal obligations to provide enhanced services to citizens, demonstrating genuine concern for citizens, practicing patience when listening, engaging in compassionate communication, and effectively assisting citizens in navigating complex procedures. Simultaneously, public organizations should allocate substantial resources to enhance employee performance and offer career advancement opportunities. This strategic investment is expected to foster a reciprocal relationship in which employees demonstrate heightened levels of commitment and engage in EPWB. Second, it is crucial for public service organizations to devise strategies aimed at bolstering the skills and motivation of their workforce to effectively serve the public. This is particularly important because a higher level of PSM has been found to be positively correlated with increased employee commitment and EPWB. One potential strategy for enhancing EPWB within an organization is to bring in change agents from successful organizations, as suggested by Battilana and Casciaro (2013). Employees displaying high levels of EPWB may engage in activities that go beyond their regular job responsibilities to assist individuals in need, such as the elderly, vulnerable, and disabled. These initiatives could involve personal visits to homes to provide support and assistance. Third, offering appropriate training and development opportunities plays a pivotal role in an organization's succession planning strategy. This process involves the preparation and advancement of locally trained personnel to replace retiring workers. Organizations involved in the process of succession planning should give precedence to nurturing public service principles among their workforces. This approach aims to nurture individuals capable of assuming supervisory roles, equipping them with a profound comprehension of public policy and the skills to formulate impactful policies that shape China's ever-changing institutional landscape. Fourth, it is advisable for public service organizations to incorporate indicators into their performance evaluations. These indicators should gauge the impact of investments in HIWP initiatives on employees' acquisition of valuable knowledge, skills, and public service values. The assessment should also encompass an evaluation of their proactivity in embracing HIWPs. Moreover, it is crucial for performance systems to include metrics that assess the degree to which HIWPs enhance employees' motivation to pursue their organization's objectives, rather than solely focusing on individual goals. Additionally, compensation systems should be designed in alignment with performance evaluations to ensure they effectively incentivize EPWB through both monetary and non-monetary rewards. By adopting well-structured HIWPs, supervisors and managers in PSOs in China and other TE can effectively promote employee commitment and EPWB among their workforces.

Limitations and future research directions

Our study has certain inherent limitations. The use of objective measurements rather than perceptual measures in this study may have limited our ability to fully capture factors such as HIWPs and EPWB. Therefore, we recommend that future investigations consider incorporating data from human resources reports, as suggested by Koufteros et al. (2014), to provide a more comprehensive assessment. Furthermore, we encourage future research efforts to delve deeper into the examination of PSM within diverse contexts, encompassing a vast array of PSOs in the Chinese environment. It's important to acknowledge that our study sample was exclusively drawn from PSOs in China, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to other industries and cultural settings. Hence, more research is required to expand the scope and generalizability of the notion in other geographical areas, cultural settings, and historical epochs (Alkatheeri et al., 2021; Bahadur & Ali, 2023; Begum et al., 2020; Shang et al., 2021; Ullah et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2021).

Conclusion

To explore the influence of HIWPs on EPWB through a SET framework, this study conducted a survey involving 785 public service employees in China. The research results affirm that employee commitment serves as a mediator in the relationship between HIWPs and EPWB. Additionally, the findings provide evidence that PSM reinforces both the direct link between HIWPs and employee commitment and the indirect effects of HIWPs on EPWB, with employee commitment acting as a mediator. The study successfully achieved its objectives, and the discussion of the findings yields several noteworthy theoretical and practical implications. This research is expected to offer valuable insights for the benefit of public service employees, policymakers, and academics alike.