Abstract
The stated goal underlying this edited volume is to study the complex role of popular agency and internal variables in the uprisings that broke out across the Arab world in 2011. This chapter takes a completely opposite perspective and, without neglecting the importance of domestic actors, it seeks to highlight the significant role foreign actors played in the protests. In order to do that, it is first necessary to distinguish between the two main phases of each uprising: its outbreak and its outcome. With regard to the outbreak phase, internal actors and dynamics were typically central. In fact, popular movements arose in a number of Arab countries that shared common calls for socioeconomic and political change eventually aimed at achieving better living standards and a greater participation by the people in their nations’ political systems. There has been general agreement among researchers that these protest movements were the result of the spontaneous mobilization of independent internal actors predominantly interested in addressing domestic grievances. As for the outcome phase, instead, this chapter will show that external actors and dynamics were often decisive. Indeed, once the protests began, the response of foreign actors had a crucial influence on the development and outcome of the uprisings. In some cases foreign action supported popular movements and facilitated change, whereas in others foreign action backed existing regimes and helped to maintain the status quo.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
See: Marina Ottaway, Bahrain: Between the United States and Saudi Arabia (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, April 4, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.carnegieendowment.org/2011/04/04/bahrain-between-united-states-and-saudi-arabia/t8;
J. Gengler, “Facts on the Ground: A Reliable Estimate of Bahrain’s Sunni-Shi’i Balance, and Evidence of Demographic Engineering,” Religion and Politics in Bahrain, April 5, 2011. Accessed at: http://bahrainipolitics.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/facts-on-ground-reliable-estimate-of.html.
S. Henderson, “Bahrain Boling: Welcome to the Arab Revolt That Failed,” Foreign Policy, September 23, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/arti-cles/2011/09/23/bahrain_boiling?page=0,2;
K. Katzman, Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy 06/11/2012 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, November 6, 2012). Accessed at: http://assets.open-crs.com/rpts/95-1013_20121106.pdf;
M. S. Doran and S. Shaikh, “Bahrain: Island of Troubles,” in The Arab Awakening (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011).
Staff, “Bahrain Activists in ‘Day of Rage,’” Al-Jazeem, February 14, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011214925802473.html;
Jane Kinninmont, Bahrain: Beyond the Impasse (London: Chatham House, June 2012).
F. Wehrey, The Precarious Ally: Bahrain’s Impasse and US Policy (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 2013). Accessed at: http://carn-egieendowment.org/files/bahrain_impasse.pdf;
J. Gelvin, The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
M. Slackman and N. Audi, “Protests in Bahrain Become Test of Wills,” The New York Times, February 22, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/23/world/middleeast/23bahrain.html?_r=l&;
M. Lynch, The Arab Uprising: The Unfinished Revolutions of the New Middle East (New York: Public Affairs, 2012).
G. Carlstrom, “Protesters Dig in at Bahraini Financial Hub,” Al-fazeera, March 7, 2011. Accessed at: http://blogs.aljazeera.com/blog/middle-east/protesters-dig-bahraini-financial-hub;
E. Bronner and M. Slackman, “Saudi Troops Enter Bahrain to Help Put Down Unrest,” The New York Times, March 14, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/15/world/middleeast/15bahrain.html?_r=1&.
Kinninmont, Bahrain: Beyond the Impasse, J. Kinninmont, Chatham House Interview, interview by Eugenio Lilli, December 5, 2012;
U. K. Coates, Chatham House Interview; D. Byman, “After the Hope of the Arab Spring, the Chill of an Arab Winter,” The Washington Post, December 2, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/after-the-hope-of-the-arab-spring-the-chill-of-an-arab-winter/2011/11/28/gIQABGqHIO_story.html.
Staff, “Bahrain King Declares State of Emergency After Protests,” BBC, March 15, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12745608;
J. Traub, “Friend Request,” Foreign Policy, May 27, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/05/27/friend_request;
Staff, “Bahrain Hospitals ‘Paralysed’ by Unrest,” Al-Jazeera, April 7, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114781638439583.html;
Staff, “Bahrain Hospitals ‘Paralysed’ by Unrest,” Al-Jazeera, April 7, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114781638439583.html;
Staff, “U.S. Condemns Arrest of Opposition Figures in Bahrain,” CNN, March 19, 2011. Accessed at: http://edi-tion.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/03/18/bahrain.protests/?hpt=T2;
J. Warrick, “Bahrain Ends State of Emergency, Promises Talks on Political Reform,” The Washington Post, June 1, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/bahrain-ends-state-of-emergency-promises-talks-on-political-reform/2011/05/31/AGv901FH_story.html;
POMED, One Yaer Later: Assessing Bahrain’s Implementation of the BICI Report, November 2012. Accessed at: http://pomed.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/POMED_BahrainReport_web-FINAL.pdf.
A. Al-Turk, “Libya: From Revolt to State-Building,” in The Arab Awakening (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011);
International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya, Middle East/North Africa Report, June 6, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/North%20Africa/107%20-%20 Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20 East%20V%20-%20Making%20Sense%20of%20Libya.pdf; Gelvin, The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know, 71–72;
US Energy Information Administration, “Country Analysis Brief: Libya,” June 2012. Accessed at: http://www.eia.gov/coun-tries/cab.cfm?fips=LY.
Al-Turk, “Libya: From Revolt to State-Building”; International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya; Wehrey Frederic, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Interview, interview by Eugenio Lilli, February 6, 2013;
CQ Press, The Middle East (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc, 2007);
C. M. Blanchard, Libya: Transition and U.S. Policy (Congressional Research Service, October 18, 2012). Accessed at: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33142.pdf
D, D. Kirkpatrick and M. El-Naggar, “Qaddafi’s Son Warns of Civil War as Libyan Protests Widen,” The New York Times, February 20, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/21/world/africa/21libya.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ref=libya;
A. Cowell, “Protests Take Aim at Leader of Libya,” The New York Times, February 16, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/world/middleeast/17libya.html?_r=1&ref=libya;
Staff, “Libyan Police Stations Torched,” Al-Jazeera, February 16, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/20112167051422444.html; International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya.
Staff, Libya: Security Forces Fire on “Day of Anger” Demonstrations (Human Rights Watch, February 18, 2011), http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/02/17/libya-security-forces-fire-day-anger-demonstrations;
Staff, “Libya Forces ‘Open Fire’ at Funeral,” Al-Jazeera, February 19, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011219811665897.html.
Staff, “Uprising Flares in Libyan City,” Al-Jazeera, February 20, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201122014259976293.html;
Staff, Libya: Governments Should Demand End to Unlawful Killings (Human Rights Watch, February 20, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/02/20/libya-governments-should-demand-end-unlawful-killings.
Kirkpatrick and El-Naggar, “Qaddafi’s Son Warns of Civil War as Libyan Protests Widen”; D. D. Kirkpatrick and M. El-Naggar, “Qaddafi’s Grip Falters as His Forces Take On Protesters,” The New York Times, February 21, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/world/africa/22libya.html?pagewanted=1&_ r=0&ref=libya;
Staff, “Libyan Diplomats Defect En Masse,” Al-Jazeera, February 22, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201122275739377867.html.
K, Fahim and D. D. Kirkpatrick, “Qaddafi’s Grip on the Capital Tightens as Revolt Grows,” The New York Times, February 22, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/23/world/africa/23libya.html?pagewanted=1&ref=libya;
Staff, “Gaddafi Loses More Libyan Cities,” Al-Jazeera, February 24, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011223125256699145.html;
A. Blomfield, “Libya: ‘More than 1,000 Dead,’” The Telegraph, February 23, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8342543/Libya-more-than-1000-dead.html.
D. D. Kirkpatrick and K. Fahim, “In Libya, Both Sides Gird for Long War as Civilian Toll Mounts,” The New York Times, March 5, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/06/world/africa/06libya.html?pagewanted=1&ref=libya; International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya.
K. Fahim, “Rebel Advance in Libya Set Back by Heavy Assault,” The New York Times, March 6, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/07/world/africa/07libya.html?ref=libya;
Libyan National Transitional Council, “Founding Statement of the Interim Transitional National Council (TNC),” March 5, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.ntclibya.org/english/founding-statement-of-the-interim-transitional-national-council/;
E. Bronner and D. E. Sanger, “Arab League Endorses No-Flight Zone over Libya,” The New York Times, March 12, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/13/world/middleeast/13libya.html?ref=libya.
D. Bilefsky and M. Landler, “As U.N. Backs Military Action in Libya, U.S. Role Is Unclear,” The New York Times, March 17, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/18/world/africa/18nations.html?ref=libya&_r= 1&;
UN Security Council, “Resolution 1973,” March 17, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1973%282011%29;
H. Cooper and S. L. Myers, “Obama Takes Hard Line With Libya after Shift by Clinton,” The New York Times, March 18, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/africa/19policy.html?pagewanted=l&_r=3&gwh=7E4951 3583E8908A447C005D34B2FE4B&ref=libya&;
Steven Erlanger, “France and Britain Lead Military Push on Libya,” The New York Times, March 18, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/africa/19europe.html?ref=libya;
N. MacFarquhar, “Saudi Arabia Scrambles to Limit Region’s Upheaval,” The New York Times, May 27, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/28/world/middleeast/28saudi.html?_r=1&ref=world;
Barack Obama, “Remarks by the President on the Situation in Libya 18/03/2011” (The White House, March 18, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/18/remarks-president-situation-libya.
Staff, “Gunfire, Explosions Heard in Tripoli,” CNN, March 20, 2011. Accessed at: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/19/libya.civil.war/.
NATO, “Operation UNIFIED PROTECTOR Protection of Civilians and Civilian-Populated Areas & Enforcement of the No-Fly Zone,” October 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nato.intnato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_10/20111005_111005-factsheet_protection_civilians.pdf;
Helen Pidd, “NATO Rejects Russian Claims of Libya Mission Creep,” The Guardian, April 15, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/15/nato-libya-rasmussen-medvedev-criticism;
J. M. Dorsey, “China and Russia Redraw International Battles Lines on Libya,” Al-Arabiya, June 30, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/06/30/155512.html;
Kareem Fahim and D. D. Kirkpatrick, “Heavy Fighting Reported in Tripoli; Rebels Encircle City,” The New York Times, August 20, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/21/world/africa/21libya.html?pagewanted=1&ref=libya;
T. Erdbrink and L. Sly, “Libyan Rebels Storm Gaddafi Compound in Tripoli,” The Washington Post, August 24, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/appearance-by-gaddafis-son-tempers-rebel-hopes-of- victory/201 l/08/23/gIQAZMWZYJ_story.html;
International Crisis Group, Holding Libya Together: Security Challenges After Qadhafi, Middle East/North Africa Report, December 14, 2011, http://www.cri-sisgroup.Org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/North%20 Africa/115%20Holding%20Libya%20Together%20--%20Security%20Challenges%20after%20Qadhafi.pdf;
K. Fahim, A. Shadid, and R. Gladstone, “Violent End to an Era as Qaddafi Dies in Libya,” The New York Times, October 20, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/21/world/africa/qaddafi-is-killed-as-libyan-forces-take-surt.html?ref=libya&_r=0;
M. B. Sheridan, “Libya Declares Liberation with an Islamic Tone,” The Washington Post, October 24, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/libya-declares-libera-tion-with-an-islamic-tone/2011/10/23/gIQA4VsbAM_story.html.
Al-Turk, “Libya: From Revolt to State-Building”; International Crisis Group, Divided We Stand: Libya’s Enduring Conflicts, Middle East/North Africa Report, September 14, 2012. Accessed at: http://www.crisisgroup.Org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20 North%20Africa/North%20Africa/libya/130-divided-we-stand-libyas-enduring-conflicts.pdf.
United Nations Development Programme, Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All, Human Development Report (New York, November 2, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/HDR/2011%20 Global%20HDR/English/HDR_201 l_EN_Complete.pdf;
J. Sharp, Yemen: Background and U.S. Relations 01/11/2012 (Congressional Research Service, November 1, 2012). Accessed at: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL34170.pdf;
I. Sharqieh, “Yemen: The Search for Stability and Development,” in The Arab Awakening (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011).
J. Sharp, Yemen: Background and U.S. Relations 01/11/2012 (Congressional Research Service, November 1, 2012).
I. Sharqieh, “Yemen: The Search for Stability and Development,” in The Arab Awakening (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011).
M. Jamjoom, “Yemenis Protest in Support of Tunisians,” CNN, January 17, 2011. Accessed at: http://edition.cnn.com/201 l/WORLD/meast/01/16/yemen.pro-test/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD;
A. Shadid, N. Bakri, and K. Fahim, “Waves of Unrest Spread to Yemen, Shaking a Region,” The New York Times, January 27, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/201 l/01/28/world/middleeast/28unrest. html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ref=yemen.
M. L. Browers, “Yemen’s Joint Meeting Parties: Origins and Architects,” in Political Ideology in the Arab World (Cambridge University Press, 2009);
Shadid, Bakri, and Fahim, “Waves of Unrest Spread to Yemen, Shaking a Region”; L. Kasinof and D. Goodman, “Violence Erupts on Fourth Day of Protests in Yemen,” The New York Times, February 14, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/201 l/02/15/world/middleeast/15yemen.html?ref=yemen&_r=0; Gelvin, The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know.
Staff, “Yemen President Not to Extend Term,” Al-Jazeera, February 2, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011228541277951.html;
L. Kasinof and N. Bakri, “Facing Unrest, Yemen’s Leader Says He Will Step Down in 2013,” The New York Times, February 2, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/03/world/middleeast/03yemen.html?ref=yemen.
Staff, “Yemen Protests: 20,000 Call for President Saleh to Go,” BBC, February 3, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12353479.
Staff, “Yemen Protesters Clash with Police,” Al-Jazeera, February 14, 2011;
Staff, “Yemen Protests Enter Fifth Day,” Al-Jazeera, February 15, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011215101053354193.html;
Staff, “Yemen Protests: Five Killed at Anti-Government Rallies,” BBC, February 19, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12507889;
L. Kasinof and D. Goodman, “In Yemen, Leader Says He’ll Talk, but Not Quit,” The New York Times, February 21, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/world/middleeast/22yemen.html?ref=yemen;
Staff, “Yemeni Protesters Defiant After Deadly Attack,” Ahramonline.org.eg, February 23, 2011. Accessed at: http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/6284/World/Region/Yemeni-protesters-defiant-after-deadly-attack.aspx.
L. Kasinof, “Opposition in Yemen Supports Protesters,” The New York Times, February 28, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/01/world/middleeast/01yemen.html?ref=yemen;
E. Stier, “Yemen Rejects Saleh Offer with Biggest Protests Yet,” The Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0311/Yemen-rejects-Saleh-offer-with-biggest-protests-yet;
M. Jamjoom, “Yemen Opposition Rejects Call for Unity Government,” CNN, February 28, 2011. Accessed at: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/02/28/yemen.protests/?hpt=T2;
L. Kasinof and R. F. Worth, “Dozens of Protesters Are Killed in Yemen,” The New York Times, March 18, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19yemen.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ref=yemen;
Human Rights Council, Report of the High Commissioner on OHCHR’s Visit to Yemen, September 13, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/YE/YemenAssessmentMissionReport.pdf;
Staff, Yemen: Emergency Law Does Not Trump Basic Rights (Human Rights Watch, March 23, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/23/yemen-emergency-law-does-not-trump-basic-rights.
K. DeYoung, “Yemen’s Leader Battens down the Hatches as Defections Mount,” The Washington Post, March22, 2011. Accessedat:http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/yemens-leader-battens-down-the-hatches/2011/03/21/ABWfMb9_story.html;
Staff, “Top Army Commanders Defect in Yemen,” Al-Jazeera, March 21, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011320180579476.html;
A. A. Saleh, “President Saleh Talks on Yemen Current Crisis in Arabiya TV Interview” (SABA News, March 28, 2011). Accessed at: http://www.sabanews.net/en/news238558.htm.
K. Fattah, “Yemen: A Social Intifada in a Republic of Sheikhs,” Middle East Policy 17, no. 3 (Fall 2011);
Katherine Zimmerman, “Yemen’s Military Restructuring: Removing Saleh’s Network,” Criticalthreats.org, December 20, 2012. Accessed at: http://www.criticalthreats.org/yemen/yemens-military-restructuring-removing-salehs-network-december-20-2012.
A. Bakr, “Yemen’s Saleh Injured by Planted Bomb—Source,” Reuters, June 26, 2011. Accessed at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/06/26/uk-yemen-president-idUK-TRE75P0NO20110626;
E. Londono and S. Raghavan, “Yemeni Crowds Celebrate after President Transfers Power, Flies to Saudi Arabia,” The Washington Post, June 4, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/speculation-grows-on-yemeni-presidents-condition/2011/06/04/AGpN9xIH_story.html.
International Crisis Group, Yemen: Enduring Conflicts, Threatened Transition, Middle East Report, July 3, 2012. Accessed at: http://www.crisisgroup.Org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iran%20Gulf/Yemen/125-yemen-enduring-conflicts-threatened-transition.pdf. Annex B and Annex C.
K. Zimmerman, “Recipe for Failure: American Strategy toward Yemen and Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula,” Criticalthreats.org, February 17, 2012. Accessed at: http://www.criticalthreats.org/yernen/zinimerman-recipe-for-failure-american-strategy-febru-ary-17-2012;
Staff, “Yemen’s SalehAgrees to Transfer Power,” Al-Jazeera, November 24, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/11/2011112355040101606. html;
T. Finn and A. Al-Wazir, “A House Divided,” Foreign Policy, November 28, 2011. Accessed at: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/11/28/a_house_ divided?page=0,0; International Crisis Group, Yemen: Enduring Conflicts, Threatened Transition.
Editor information
Copyright information
© 2015 Fawaz A. Gerges
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lilli, E. (2015). Foreign Actors: a Double-Edged Sword Hanging Over Contentious Politics in the Middle East. In: Gerges, F.A. (eds) Contentious Politics in the Middle East. Middle East Today. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137530868_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137530868_8
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, New York
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-53720-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-53086-8
eBook Packages: Palgrave Political Science CollectionPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)