Skip to main content

‘We’re in the 21st Century After All’: Analysis of Social Responses in Individual Support and Institutional Reform

  • Chapter
Response Based Approaches to the Study of Interpersonal Violence

Abstract

In the course of our research and clinical work in Response-Based Practice (Wade, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2007, 2014;Coates, Todd and Wade, 2003; Todd and Wade, 2004; Coates and Wade, 2004, 2007, 2012)1, we routinely meet victims of violence who report receiving negative social responses from others. Often this takes the form of blame and misdiagnosis. The victim’s resistance to the violence is ignored and the victim’s responses are interpreted instead as ‘effects’ or ‘impacts’ and symptoms of disorders and deficits. When viewed in context, however, we find that victim responses — even responses of intense despair — become understandable as fitting and proportionate responses and as forms of resistance. By ‘context’ we mean the perpetrator’s actions, the specific situations in which those actions are committed, the social responses of social network and institutional actors (the focus of this chapter) and social and material conditions that are, or become, salient. Just as positive social responses can provide immense relief, negative social responses can incite further suffering, as in the case of Jenna, discussed here.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahern, J., Galea, S., Fernandez, W.G., Koci, B., Waldman, R. and Vlahov, D. (2004). Gender, social support, and posttraumatic stress in postwar Kosovo. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192: 762–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men-tal Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Vol. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, K. (2000). A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood. Toronto: Sumach/Canadian Scholars’ Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B., Brewin, C.R. and Rose, S. (2003). Gender, social support, and PTSD in victims of violent crime. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16: 421–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bal, S., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Crombez, G. and Van Oost, P. (2005). Predictors of trauma symptomatology in sexually abused adolescents: A 6-month follow-up study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20: 1390–1405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackstock, C. (2007). Residential schools: Did they really close or just morph into child welfare? Indigenous Law Journal, 6: 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackstock, C. (2011). The Canadian Human Rights Tribunal on First Nations child welfare: Why if Canada wins, equality and justice lose. Children and Youth Services Review, 33: 187–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borja, S.E., Callahan, J.L. and Long, PJ. (2006). Positive and negative adjustment and social support of sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19: 905–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. and Valentine, J.D. (2000) Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68: 748–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burstow, B. (1992). Radical Feminist Therapy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, R., Ahrens, C.E., Sefl, T., Wasco, S.M. and Barnes, H.E. (2001). Social reactions to rape victims: Healing and hurtful effects on psychological and physical health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 16: 287–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carriere, J. and Richardson, C. (2009). From longing to belonging: An indigenous critique of applying attachment theory to work with indigenous families. In S. McKay, D. Fuchs, and I. Brown (eds.). Passion for Action in Child and Family Services. Regina, SK: Canadian Plains Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charuvastra, A. and Cloitre, M. (2008). Social Bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59: 301–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churchill, W. (1998). A Little Matter of Genocide. San Francisco CA: City Lights Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J.A., Schaefer, H.S. and Davidson, R.J. (2006). Lending a hand: Social regulation of the neural response to threat. Psychology and Science, 17: 1032–1039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L. (1997). Causal attributions in sexual assault trial judgements. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16: 278–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L., Bavelas, J. B. and Gibson, J. (1994). Anomalous language in sexual assault trial judgements. Discourse and Society, 5: 191–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L. and Wade, A. (2012). Tell it like it is: How professionals misrepresent sexualised violence against children. Context, June 2012: 20–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L. and Wade, A. (2007). Language and violence;Analysis of four discursive operations. Journal of Family Violence, 22: 511–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L., Todd, N. and Wade, A. (2003). Shifting terms: An interactional and discursive view of violence and resistance. Canadian Review of Social Policy, 52: 116–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coates, L. and Wade, A. (2004). Telling it like it isn’t: Obscuring perpetrator responsibility for violent crime. Discourse and Society, 15: 499–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. and Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98: 310–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Certeau, M. (1984). The Practice of Everyday life. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R.C., Brickman, E. and Baker, T. (1991). Supportive and unsupportive responses of others to rape victims: Effects on concurrent victim adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19: 443–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everson, M.D., Hunter, W.M., Runyon, D.K., Edelsohn, G.A. and Coulter, M.L. (1989). Maternal support following disclosure of incest. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59: 197–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Filipas, H. H. and Ullman, S. E. (2001). Social reactions to sexual assault victims from various support sources. Violence and Victims, 16: 673–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C., Rogers, A.D. and Tolman, D.T. (eds.). (1991). Women, Girls and Psychotherapy: Reframing Resistance. New York: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haig-Brown, C. (1988). Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School. Vancouver: Tillicum Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harre, R. and Moghaddam, F.M. (2012). Psychology for the Third Millennium. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyden, M. (1999). The world of the fearful: Battered women’s narratives of leaving abusive husbands. Feminism and Psychology, 9: 449–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, S., Gold, S. and Cott, M. (2003). Forms of social support that moderate PTSD in childhood sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Family Violence, 18: 295–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaniasty, K. and Norris, F.H. (1992). Social support and victims of crime: Matching event, support, and outcome. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20: 211–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaspersen, M., Matthiesen, S.B. and Gotestam, K.G. (2003). Social network as a moderator in the relation between trauma exposure and trauma reaction: A survey among UN soldiers and relief workers. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44: 415–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, L. (1988). Surviving Sexual Violence. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R.C. and Price R.H., Wortman, C.B. (1985). Social factors in psychopathology: Stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 36: 531–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, L.A., King, D.W., Fairbank, J.A., Keane, T.M. and Adams, G.A. (1998). Resilience-recovery factors in post-traumatic stress disorder among female and male Vietnam veterans: Hardiness, post-war social support, and additional stressful life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 420–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monture-Agnes, P. (1995). Thunder in my Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks. Winnipeg: Fernwood Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F.H. and Kaniasty, K. (1996) Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 498–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Punamaki, R.L., Komproe, I., Qouta, S., El-Masri, M. and de Jong, J.T. (2005) The deterioration and mobilization effects of trauma on social support: Childhood maltreatment and adulthood military violence in a Palestinian community sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29: 351–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, V. and Hammoud-Beckett, S. (2012) Bridging the worlds of therapy and activism: Intersections, tensions and affinities. International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work, 4: 57–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, V. and Richardson, C. (2012) ‘Here we are amazingly alive’: Holding ourselves together with an ethic of social justice in community work. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 1: 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, C. (2008a). Métis experiences of social work practice. In Strega, S. and Carriere, J. (eds.). Walking This Path together: Anti-Racist and Anti-Oppressive Child Welfare Practice. Winnipeg, MB: Fernwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, C. (2008b). A word is worth a thousand pictures: Working with aboriginal women who have experienced violence. In Ross, L.R. (ed.). Feminist Counselling: Theories, Issues and Practice. Toronto: Women’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, C. and Wade, A. (2008). Taking resistance seriously: A response-based approach to social work in cases of violence against indigenous women. In Strega, S. and Carriere, J. (eds.). Walking This Path together: Anti-Racist and Anti-Oppressive Child Welfare Practice. Winnipeg, MB: Fernwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumm, J.A., Briggs-Phillips, M. and Hobfoll, S.E. (2006). Cumulative interpersonal traumas and social support as risk and resiliency factors in predicting PTSD and depression among inner-city women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19: 825–836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shinn, M., Lehmann, S. and Wong, N.W. (1984) Social interaction and social support. Journal of Social Issues, 40: 55–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strega, S., Krane, J., LaPierre, S. and Richardson, C. (eds.) (2013). Failure to Protect: Moving beyond Gendered Responses to Violence. Winnipeg, MB: Fernwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Summerfield, D. and Hume, F. (1993). War and posttraumatic stress disorder: The question of social context. Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 181: 522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoresen, S. and Øverlien, C. (2009) Trauma victim: Yes or No?: Why it may be difficult to answer questions regarding violence, sexual abuse, and other traumatic events. Violence Against Women, 15: 699–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, N. and Wade, A. (2004) Coming to terms with violence and resistance: From a language of effects to a language of responses. In Strong, T. and Paré, D. (eds.). Furthering talk: Advances in the Discursive Therapies. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trew, T. (1979) Theory and ideology at work. In Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G. and Trew, T. (eds.). Language and Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, S.E. (2010) Talking about Sexual Assault: Society’s Response to Survivors. American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, S.E. (1996a) Do social reactions to sexual assault victims vary by support provider? Violence and Victims, 11: 143–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, S.E. (1996b) Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20: 505–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, S.E. and Filipas, H.H. (2001) Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14: 369–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A. (1997) Small acts of living: Everyday resistance to violence and other forms of oppression. Contemporary Family Therapy, 19: 23–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A. (2000) Resistance to Interpersonal Violence: Implications for the Practice of Therapy. Unpublished dissertation. Canada: University of Victoria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A. (2002) Honouring our clients: Resistance to violence and oppression. New Therapist, 21, September/October:14–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A. (2007) Hope despair, resistance: Response-based therapy with victims of violence. In Flaskas, C., McCarthy, I. and Sheehan, J. (eds.). Hope and Despair in Narrative and Family Therapy: Adversity, Forgiveness and Reconciliation. Hove: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A. (2014). ‘Where the hell is everybody?’: Leanna’s responses to armed robbery and negative social responses. In McNab, S. and Partridge, K. (eds.). Creative Positions in Adult Mental Health. London: Karnac.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Copyright information

© 2016 Linda Coates and Allan Wade

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Coates, L., Wade, A. (2016). ‘We’re in the 21st Century After All’: Analysis of Social Responses in Individual Support and Institutional Reform. In: Hydén, M., Gadd, D., Wade, A. (eds) Response Based Approaches to the Study of Interpersonal Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137409546_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics