Abstract
By the beginning of the 20th century, the modern nation-states of Italy and Germany had laid the groundwork for utilizing the state of exception. Executive authorities faced an increasingly challenging international situation which made expulsion more difficult, and despite their admonitions, they faced tensions and problems in implementing their policies on a local level. Those placed in the category of Gypsy felt increasingly challenged as well: they were subjected to arbitrary and extralegal arrest and detention for reasons of public security, expelled and often expropriated, forced to pay the costs of their own detention and expulsion. Their treatment hinged on their status as Gypsies, and the only way to avoid the consequences of this categorization was to escape it. Leaving the category was significantly more difficult in Germany than in Italy, since German strategy involved a more precise enumeration and documentation of Gypsy populations, while Italian policy was more ad hoc.
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Notes
Dino Pieri, Lo Zingaro Maledetto: colera e societä nella Romagna dell’Ottocento (Bologna: Guidicini e Rosa Editori, 1985), 187.
Martine Kaluszynski, “Republican Identity: Bertillonage as Government Technique,” in Jane Caplan and John Torpey (eds), Documenting Individual Identity. The Development of State Practices in the Modern World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 136.
Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 19.
Società di etnografia italiana, Atti del Primo Congresso di Etnograßa Italiana (Perugia: Unione Tipografica Cooperativa, 1912), 171.
Colocci himself is a controversial figure in the history of Gypsy studies in Italy. See Leonardo Piasere, “Sigismondo Caccini e gli Sinte Rozengre,” in Italia Romani: volume primo (Roma: CISU, 1996), 119–78.
Dino Piero, Lo Zingaro maledetto: colera e società nella Romagna dell’Ottocento (Bologna: Guidicini e Rosa Editori, 1985).
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia: The Myth of the Nation in the 20th Century (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009).
For example, Andrea Del Boca in Italiani, brava gente? Un mito duro a morire (Milano: Neri Pozza, 2005)
Aliza S. Wong, in Race and the Nation in Liberal Italy also argues persuasively for a racialist conception of southern Italians from the liberal state’s very beginnings (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
John A. Davis. Conflict and Control: Law and Order in Nineteenth-century Italy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1988).
Frank Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 1884–1911 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 237.
Silvana Patriarca, “Indolence and Regeneration: Tropes and Tensions of Risorgimento Patriotism,” American Historical Review 110, no. 2 (1995): 380–408.
Frank Snowden, “Cholera in Barletta 1910,” Past and Present 132 (1991): 67–103.
Quoted in Paolo Melissi, “Adriano Colocci e la cultura del suo tempo,” Lacio Drom 31, no. 2 (1995): 32.
Susan A. Ashley, Making Liberalism Work: The Italian Experience, 1860–1914 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003).
A. Vivante, Irredentismo adriatico (Trieste: Edizioni ‘Italo Svevo’, 1984).
Giuseppe Levakovich and G. Ausenda, Tzigari: Vita di un nomade (Milano: Bompiani, 1974).
James Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 235.
The Scuola di Polizia Scientifica was founded in Rome in 1902, according to A. Capobianco, and their stated mission was the “teaching and individual exercise of scientific methods for the recognition, signaling and moral and physical identification of criminals, and for ascertaining crimes.” The Archivio Centrale dello Stato in Rome has the files from the school, however, they are not yet accessible in an organized form. (Alfredo Capobianco, Il problema di una gente vagabonda in lotta con le leggi (Napoli: Raimondi, 1914), 96.)
Hermann Aichele, Die Zigeunerfrage mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Württembergs (Stuttgart: Stuttgarter Vereins-Buchdruckerei, 1911).
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© 2014 Jennifer Illuzzi
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Illuzzi, J. (2014). Creating a State of Exception: 1910–1913. In: Gypsies in Germany and Italy, 1861–1914. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137401724_5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137401724_5
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