Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Differentiated Educational Pathways and Gender Inequalities in the Estonian Labour Market: What Is the Impact of the Systemic Change?

  • Chapter
Rethinking Gender, Work and Care in a New Europe

Abstract

Estonia is an interesting country in which to study gender segregation, especially when comparing different historical periods. The main features of the Estonian situation during the Soviet period were the higher female educational level, gendered secondary education tracks, male concentration in the primary and secondary sectors, gender pay equity and high female labour force participation. The social and economic changes at the beginning of the 1990s have had an enormous impact on gender differences in the labour market. Despite the feminization of higher education, Estonia is faced with an increasing gap between male and female wages, which is now among the highest in the European Union, new discriminatory structures in employment practices and the feminization of poverty (Narusk and Kandolin, 1997; Hansson and Aavik, 2012; Roosalu, 2013).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahde, P. and Rajasalu, T. (1993) ‘Economic Structures’ in O. Lugus and P. Vartia (eds) Estonia and Finland. A Retrospective Socioeconomic Comparison (Helsinki: Taloustieto Co.), pp. 67–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, B. and Vöörmann, R. (1997) ‘Women and Equality of the Sexes in Estonia’, International Journal of Sociology, 26, 76–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. (1964) Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bielby, W. and Baron, J. (1986) ‘Men and Women at Work: Sex Segregation and Statistical Discrimination’, American Journal of Sociology, 95, 616–658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, M. (2000) ‘The Evolution of Sex Segregation Regimes’, American Journal of Sociology, 105, 1658–1701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, M. and Bradley, K. (2002) ‘Equal but Separated? A Cross-National Study of Sex Segregation in Higher Education’, American Sociological Review, 67, 573–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, M. and Grusky, D. (2004) Occupational Ghettos: The Worldwide Segregation of Women and Men (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles, M., Buchmann, M., Halebsky, S., Powers, J. and Smith, M. M. (2001) ‘The Context of Women’s Market Careers: A Cross-National Study’, Work and Occupations, 8, 371–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Correll, S. (2001) ‘Gender and Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self-assessments’, American Journal of Sociology, 106, 1671–1730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eamets, R. and Masso, J. (2005) ‘The Paradox of the Baltic States: Labour Market Flexibility but Protected Workers’, European Journal of Industrial Relations, 11, 71–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estevez-Abe, M. (2005) ‘Gender Bias in Skills and Social Policies: The Varieties of Capitalism Perspective on Sex Segregation’, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 12, 180–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs (2006) Soolise võrdõiguslikkuse monitooring [Gender Equality Monitoring].

    Google Scholar 

  • Fodor, E. (1997) ‘Gender in Transition: Unemployment in Hungary, Poland and Slovakia’, East European Politics and Societies, 11, 470–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gangl, M. and Müller, W. (2003) Transitions from Education to Work in Europe: The Integration of Youth into EU Labour Markets (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansson, L. and Aavik, K. (2012) ‘The Effect of Gender and Ethnicity and Their Intersection on Work Satisfaction and Earnings in Estonia, 1993–2008’, Studies in Transition States and Societies, 4, 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helemäe, J. and Saar, E. (2006) ‘Women’s Employment in Estonia’ in H.-P. Blossfeld and H. Hofmeister (eds) Globalization, Uncertainty and Women’s Careers in International Comparison (London: Edward Elgar), pp. 199–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helemäe, J. and Saar, E. (2011) ‘Institutional and Ideological Foundations of Marketization’ in E. Saar (ed.) Towards a Normal Stratification Order. Actual and Perceived Social Stratification in Post-Socialist Estonia (Frankfurt: Peter Lang), pp. 33–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helemäe, J., Saar, E. and Vöörmann, R. (2000) Kas haridusse tasus investeerida? Hariduse selekteerivast ja stratifitseerivast rollist kahe põlvkonna kogemuse alusel [Returns to Education. On the Selective and Stratifying Role of Education: The Example of Two Cohorts] (Tallinn: Teaduste Akadeemia Kirjastus).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazjulja, M. and Roosalu, T. (2007) ‘Who Was Successful at Finding Good Job at Estonian Labour Market: Comparison of Pre- and Post-Transformation Society’, Spring Meeting of the Research Committee on Social Stratification and Mobility (RC28) of the International Sociological Association (ISA) (Brno, Czech Republic), 24–27 May 2007, available at: http://www.soc.cas.cz/sites/default/files/soubory/210507113529d1f832bc1dcab2b1b26.pdf, date accessed 3 February 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazjulja, M. and Roosalu, T (2010) ‘Job Allocation in Transition Society: The Role of Social Networks,’ Nasselenie Review, 1 (2), 191–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandel, H. and Semyonov, M. (2006) ‘A Welfare State Paradox: State Interventions and Women’s Employment Opportunities in 22 Countries,’ American Journal of Sociology, 111, 1910–1949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mincer, J. and Polachek, S. (1974) ‘Family Investments in Human Capital: Earnings of Women,’ Journal of Political Economy, 82, 76–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narusk, A. (1995) ‘Segregation and Earnings Gap. Unpaid Work’ in P. Järve, K. Loogma, E. Terk and K. Toomel (eds) Estonian Human Development Report 1995 (Tallinn: UNDP), pp. 62–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narusk, A. and Kandolin, I. (1997) ‘Social Well-Being and Gender: Post-Soviet Estonia and Welfare State Finland’, Scandinavian Journal of Social Welfare, 6, 127–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2003) Labour Market and Social Policies in the Baltic Countries (Paris: OECD).

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, E. (1972) ‘The Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism’, American Economic Review, 62, 659–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puur, A. (1993) Labour Force Participation Trends in the Baltic States 1959–1989 (Tallinn: EKDK).

    Google Scholar 

  • Põldsaar, R. (2008) ‘Gender Equality Reframed: Estonian Experience and Global Context’ in I. Novikova (ed.) Gender Matters in the Baltics (Riga: Latvian University), pp. 13–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roosalu, T. (2007) ‘Flexible Working Time’ in R. Vetik (ed.) Estonian Human Development Report (Tallinn: Eesti Ekspressi Kirjastus), pp. 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roosalu, T. (2008) ‘Work-Life Balance and Working Hours: When Is It Balanced?’ in H. Strzeminska (ed.) Working Time and Its Organization in New Member States of EU. Economic, Legal and Social Aspect (Warsaw: Instytut Pracyi Spraw Socjalnych), pp. 168–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roosalu, T. (2013) ‘Income Inequality and Equality’ in M. Heidmets (ed.) Estonian Human Development Report, 2012/2013 (Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu), pp. 114–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roosalu, T. and Täht, K (2010) ‘Women in the Labor Market: The Effect of Parental Leave on Career Opportunities’ in M. Lauristin (ed.) Estonian Human Development Report, 2009 (Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu), pp. 96–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubery, J. and Fagan, C. (1993) ‘Occupational Segregation and Women and Men in European Community’, Social Europe Supplement,3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saar, E. (1997) ‘Women Disadvantages in Labor and Gender Differences in Educational Paths’ in M. Taljunaite (ed.) Everyday Life in the Baltic States (Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of Philosophy and Sociology), pp. 104–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saar, E. (2010) ‘Changes in Intergenerational Mobility and Educational Inequality in Estonia: Comparative Analysis of Cohorts Born between 1930 and 1974’, European Sociological Review, 26, 367–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saar, E. and Lindemann, K. (2008) ‘Estonia’ in I. Kogan, M. Gebel and C. Noelke (eds) Europe Enlarged: A Handbook of Education, Labour and Welfare Regimes in Central and Eastern Europe (Bristol: Policy Press), pp. 151–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saar, E. and Mõttus, R. (2013) ‘Introduction: A Brief Overview of the Estonian Higher Education System and its Challenges’ in E. Saar and R. Mõttus (eds) Higher Education in the Crossroad: The Case of Estonia (Frankfurt: Peter Lang), pp. 11–26.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, E. and Steinmetz, S. (2008) ‘Field of Study and Gender Segregation in European Labour Markets’, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 49, 257–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tõnisson, E. (2011) Kõrghariduse valdkonna statistiline ülevaade 2011 [Statistical Overview of Higher Education 2011] (Tartu: Estonian Ministry of Education and Research), available at: http://www.hm.ee/index.php7048183, date accessed 12 April 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veldre, V. (2007) ‘Hariduslik kihistumine soolisest aspektist’ [‘Gender Aspect of Educational Stratification’], Eesti Statistika Kuukiri, 6, 5–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vihalemm, T. and Kalmus, V. (2008) ‘Mental Structures in Transition Culture: Differentiating Patterns of Identities and Values in Estonia’, East European Politics and Societies, 22, 901–927.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vöörmann, R. (2009) ‘Gender Segregated Labour Markets in the Baltics. What Are Prevailing — Similarities or Differences?’, Studies of Transition States and Societies, 1, 66–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vöörmann, R. (2011) ‘Educational Path, Working Careers and Gender Segregation: The Winners’ Birth Cohort 1962–73’ in E. Saar (ed.) Towards a Normal Stratification Order: Actual and Perceived Social Stratification in Post-Socialist Estonia (Frankfurt: Peter Lang), pp. 253–282.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Ellu Saar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jelena Helemäe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Tallinn University, Estonia

    Triin Roosalu (Associate Professor of Sociology) (Associate Professor of Sociology)

  2. University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

    Dirk Hofäcker (Professor of Quantitative Methods of Social Research) (Professor of Quantitative Methods of Social Research)

Copyright information

© 2016 Ellu Saar and Jelena Helemäe

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Saar, E., Helemäe, J. (2016). Differentiated Educational Pathways and Gender Inequalities in the Estonian Labour Market: What Is the Impact of the Systemic Change?. In: Roosalu, T., Hofäcker, D. (eds) Rethinking Gender, Work and Care in a New Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137371096_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137371096_15

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-349-57128-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-37109-6

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation