Abstract
With characteristic clarity and persuasiveness, Marxist critic José Carlos Mariátegui noted that educational doctrines from different sources overlapped in Peruvian public discourse from independence to the early twentieth century:
Education in Peru has been subject to three successive influences: the Spanish influence or, more precisely, legacy; the French; and the North American. However, the initial Spanish influence has dominated. The other two have barely penetrated the Spanish framework and have not altered it basically. The history of public education in Peru is divided into three periods according to these influences. The periods are not precisely defined. This is a common effect in Peru, where even men are seldom clearly and unmistakably outlined and everything is a little blurred and confused. A combination of foreign elements, unadapted to local conditions, is superimposed on public education, as on other aspects of national life. Peru, fruit of the conquest, is not a country that assimilated the ideas of men of other nations and imbues them with its sentiments and customs, thereby enriching without deforming its national spirit.1
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Notes
Sociologists Aaron Benavot and Phyllis Riddle argue that enrollment ratios “provide means of assessing competing paradigms and propositions of the causes or conditions of educational expansion.” Aaron Benavot and Phyllis Riddle, “The Expansion of Primary Education, 1870–1940: Trends and Issues,” Sociology of Education 61 (July 1988): 193.
Occasionally, the national government provided funds to schools run in religious convents. Since 1830, the government funded 12 scholarships at the Colegio de Educandas del Espíritu Santo, opened by French educator Hortensia Bayer de Nussard. In 1846, the government began paying for 20 scholarships at the Colegio de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, founded in 1840. The state took over this school in 1855. Eduardo Carrasco, Calendario y guía de forasteros de la República Peruana para el año de 1851 (Lima: Imprenta de Eusebio Aranda, 1850), 91; “Decreto de 15 de junio de 1846. Dotando veinte becas en el Colegio de Guadalupe” and “Decreto de 10 de marzo de 1855. Disponiendo que la junta inspectora de instrucción se encargue de los colegios de Guadalupe y S. Carlos,” in Juan Oviedo, Colección de Leyes, Decretos y Ordenes publicadas en el Perú … (Lima: Felipe Baylly, 1862), IX: 69 and 73.
Manuel A. Fuentes, Estadística General de Lima (Lima: Tipografía Nacional de M. N. Corpancho, 1858), 234.
For the early-Republican ideas about of the relationship between Church and State in Peru, see Fredrick B. Pike, “Heresy, Real and Allege, in Peru: An Aspect of the Conservative-Liberal Struggle, 1830–1875,” Hispanic American Historical Review (HAHR) 47 (1967): 50–74.
Official reliance on the educational role of the Church was common to other Latin American countries, see Carlos Newland, “La educación elemental en Hispanoamérica: desde la independencia hasta la centralización de los sistemas educativos nacionales,” HAHR 71: 2 (1991): 348–349;
Mary Kay Vaughan, “Primary Education and Literacy in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Research Trends, 1968–1988,” Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 33.
The 1908 educational code introduced more demanding requisites: Both the school principal and the teachers had to have teaching licenses issued by the newly created school inspectors, the principal had to obtain a certificate of good morals issued by the mayor and signed by two “notable neighbors,” and teachers had to prove their moral and physical capacities. In addition, a medicine doctor had to inspect the school building to verify that it met the conditions required by the1899 code of school hygiene. See “Reglamento general de instrucción pública de 1850,” El Peruano (EP) 23: 50 (June 14, 1850): 201; “Reglamento general de instrucción pública de 1855,” EP 28: 7 (April 11, 1855): 26; Reglamento general de instruc-ción pública del Perú (Lima: Imprenta del Estado), 1876; Dirección Generalde Instrucción Primaria, Reglamento General de Instrucción Primaria (Lima: Fabbri, 1908), 174–176.
Manuel A. Fuentes, Lima: Apuntes históricos, descriptivos, estadísticos y de costumbres (1867) (Lima: Fondo del Libro—Banco Industrial del Perú, 1988), 212–213.
On the economic situation of Lima and Perú in the years after independence, see Alfonso Quiroz, “Estructura económica y desarrollos regionales de la clase dominante, 1821–1850,” in Alberto Flores, ed., Independencia y revolución 1780–1840 (Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura, 1987), 2: 220–221;
Paul Gootenberg, Between Silver and Guano. Commercial Policy and the State in Postindependence Peru (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 101–111.
Among these were Colegio de Santa Cruz de Atocha (later Colegio de Santa Teresa), Casa Hospital de Niños Expósitos (for a while Colegio de San José), and Hospicio de la Inmaculada Concepción. José María Córdova y Urrutia, Estadística histórica, geográfica, industrial, y comercial de los pueblos que componen las provincias del Departamento de Lima (1839) (Lima: Entre Nous, 1992), 51; Fuentes, Estadística, 198–199, 288–302.
Peter Klarén, Peru. Society and Nationhood in the Andes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 170–172;
Carlos Cont reras, “Buenos para la guerra, malos para la paz: el legado económico de la indepen-dencia en el Perú,” in Susana Bandieri, ed., La historia económica y los procesos de independencia en la América hispánica (Buenos Aires: Asociación Argentina de Historia Económica, 2010), 273.
Francisco Pini Rodolfi, “La Población del Perú a lo largo de un Siglo: 1785–1884,” in Centro de Estudios Población y Desarrollo, Informe Demográfico Perú—1970 (Lima: CEPD, 1972), 92;
Rory Miller, “The Population Problem of Late Nineteenth-Century Lima” (unpublished manuscript, 1988);
Paul Gootenberg, “Population and Ethnicity in Early Republican Peru: Some Revisions,” Latin American Research Review 26: 3 (1991): 109–157.
Pablo Whipple, “¿Apostando por la República? Decencia, apuestas e institucionalidad republicana durante la primera mitad del siglo XIX en Lima,” in A Contracorriente. A Journal on Social History and Literature in Latin America VI: 3 (Spring 2009): 1–35. http://www.ncsu.edu/acontracorriente/spring_09/docs/Whipple.pdf; David S. Parker, The Idea of the Middle Class. White-Collar Workers and Peruvian Society, 1900–1950 (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1998), 26–29.
Jeffrey Klaiber S. J., The Catholic Church in Peru, 1821–1985. A Social History (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America, 1992), 148–160.
Manuel González Prada, “Catholic Education” (1892) in Free Pages and Hard Times. Anarchist Musings (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 76–77.
Teresa Gonzálezde Fanning, Educación femenina; colección de artículos pedagógicos, morales y sociológicos (Lima: Torres Aguirre, 1898), 14–16.
Gregorio Salvador Ríos, Estructura y Cambio de la Comunidad Campesina: La Comunidad de Huascoy (Lima: CEDEP, 1983), 169–170.
On schools in Lima’s provinces in 1861 see Pedro Cabello, Guía Política, Eclesiástica y Militar del Perú para el año de 1861 (Lima: Imprenta de J.M. Masías, 1861), 157–170.
On Santa Lucíade Pacaraos, Jürgen Golte et al. Cambios Estructurales y Limitaciones Ecológicas. Proceso histórico de la comunidad de Santa Lucía de Pacaraos (Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1967), 14.
See Carmen McEvoy, Un Proyecto Nacional en el siglo XIX. Manuel Pardo y su visión del Perú (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1994), 101–102, and La Utopía Republicana, 160–161.
“L. 9 de Abril de 1873. Ley Orgánica de Municipalidades,” ADLP; “Reglamento de Instrucción Primaria” (1874) in David Cornejo Foronda, Don Manuel Pardo y la Educación Nacional (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1953), and “Reglamento General de Instrucción Pública” (1876)
in Ministerio de Instrucción, Culto, Justicia y Beneficencia, Memoria que al Congreso Nacional de 1876 presenta el Ministro de Instrucción, Culto Justicia y Beneficencia (Lima: Empresa Tipográfica, 1876).
Luis Benjamín Cisneros, “Memoria y Guía Estadística de Instrucción Primaria 1875” (1876), Obras completas de … Mandadas publicar por el gobierno del Perú (Lima: Librería e Imprenta Gil, 1939), III: 384–385; “Sobre fondo de escuelas en Lima,” Boletín de Instrucción Pública (BIP) II: 13 (January 15, 1878): 19–20; III: 44 (January 15, 1879): 135; on the school head tax in Callao, see BIP II: 14 (February 1, 1878): 36–37;
Fernando Palacios, “Memoria del Prefecto de Lima” in Ministerio de Gobierno, Policía y Obras Públicas, Memoria que presenta al Congreso Ordinario el Ministro de Gobierno, Policía y Obras Públicas (Lima: Imprenta del Estado, 1878), 8.
Archibald Smith M. D., Peru As It Is: A Residence in Lima and Other Parts of the Peruvian Country … (London: Richard Bentley, 1839), I: 269–271;
J. J. Von Tschudi, Travels in Peru during the Years1838– 1842 (London: David Bogue, 1847), 255;
José R. Deustua, The Bewitchment of Silver. The Social Economy of Mining in Nineteenth-Century Peru, Monographs on International Studies, Latin American Series vol. 31 (Athens, GA: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2000), 108; Urrutia, Estadística Histórica, 128.
Emilio Mendizábal Losack, “Pacaraos: una comunidad en la parte alta del Valle de Chancay,” in Revista del Museo Nacional XXXIII (1964): 32–36; Golte, Cambios estructurales, 18–19, Deustua, The Bewitchment, 81–86.
Isabelle Lausent, Pequeña propiedad, poder y economía de mercado. Acos. Valley de Chancay (Lima: IEP-IFEA, 1983), 90–91, 143; Golte, 16–17;
Filomeno Zubieta Núñez, “Visita Pastoral de Monseñor Manuel Tovar a las provincias de Chancay y Canta (1900–1902),” in Diócesisde Huacho, ed., Diócesis de Huacho: Una Iglesia joven con una rica historia. 50 años de Servicio pastoral (Huacho: Obispado de Huacho, 2008), 281–291.
Eugenio Larrabure y Unanue, “Cañete. Apuntes descriptivos, histó-ricos y estadísticos” (1874), in Miguel Pinto and Alejandro Salinas, eds., Geografía de la Costa. Siglo XIX (Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos—Seminario de Historia Rural Andina, 1995), 18–20.
William S. Bell, An Essay on the Peruvian Cotton Industry, 1825–1920 (Liverpool: University of Liverpool—Centre for Latin American Studies, 1985), 35, 39–41.
Jenaro E. Herrera, “La Provincia de Chancay. Apuntes históricos y geográficos,” in Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima (BSGL) XLV: 3–4 (1928): 284;
Jorge C. Montalvo, Album de Oro Huaralino 1890–1940 (Lima: Minerva, 1940), 23–24;
Heraclio Bonilla, Las Comunidades Campesinas Tradicionales del Valle de Chancay. Tesis antropológicas no. 1 (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Etnológicos del Museo Nacional de la Cultura Peruana—Departamento de Antropología de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1965), 73.
César Espinoza Claudio and José Boza Monteverde, Tierra y Pueblos de Indios en Huacho (Carquín: Siglos XVI — XX) (Lima: Universidad Mayor de San Marcos—Facultad de Ciencias Sociales—Instituto de Investigaciones Histórico-Sociales, 1985), 9–11;
Lausent, Pequeña propiedad, 88, 149; Charles A. H. Villiers, Edgar Fraser Luckie, Don Miguel Iglesias, and Britain’s Informal Empire in Peru (Edinburgh: Scotland’s Culture Heritage—University of Edinburgh, 1986), 12.
José Matos Mar and Jorge A. Carvajal, eds., Erasmo Muñoz. Yanacón del Valle de Chancay (Lima: IEP, 1974), 31–33.
Humberto Rodríguez Pastor and Leonilda Sobreviela, “Eufemio Sabá: comunero costeño del Valle de Lurín,” Revista del Museo Nacional XXXII (1963): 120.
José Matos Mar, Marco Geográfico del Area Cultural del Kauke en el Perú (Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1950).
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© 2013 G. Antonio Espinoza
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Espinoza, G.A. (2013). From Republicanism to Popular Instruction to Nationalism. In: Education and the State in Modern Peru. Historical Studies in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137333032_3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137333032_3
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