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Wildlife Trafficking: Harms and Victimization

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Fighting Environmental Crime in Europe and Beyond

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Green Criminology ((PSGC))

Abstract

The Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT), involving the illicit sale or exchange of wild animals and plants globally, is one of the fastest growing black markets in the world and is commonly positioned alongside the illegal drugs, arms, and human trafficking trades in regard to the economic values involved. The types of offences, offenders, and victims in the trade are varied and complex. Offences include the trafficking of live animals (e.g. birds, reptiles), animal parts (e.g. ivory), and derivatives (e.g. bear bile). Offenders range from native hunters (e.g. poachers) to ignorant tourist (e.g. souvenirs) or organized criminals (e.g. rhino horn). Research suggests the escalation in the collection and killing of wildife is largely influenced by market forces, offenders being motivated by the potential for substantial economic gain, while consumer markets are expanding. The market for IWT ‘goods’ is linked to cultural and social norms—such as religious practice, health benefits, or status symbols—which influence different types of offenders (e.g. trophy hunters, traditional medicine users). This chapter focuses on the trafficking of animals, that as direct victims, dead or alive, usually are given little concern in the field, thus accepting the logic of the CITES convention which regards nonhuman animals as exploitable resources until the limit is reached for the endangerment of the entire species. The victimization can also continue for many of the animals ‘rescued’ and confiscated from the illegal trade—through routine euthanasia and long-term confinement in unsuitable conditions; in only a few cases animals are returned to the wild. Based on a case study involving the UK, Norway, Colombia, and Brazil, this chapter sheds light on the questions, What are the characteristics of wildlife trafficking? (What consumer practices are driving forces, and why?) How are animals (and humans) victimized? What are the common features of the ways in which these crimes are enforced in case study locations? Specifically, the IWT is poorly prioritized and resourced; the enforcement response is often uninformed and uncoordinated, while legislation is complex and disjoined leading to uncertainty and leniency in punishment. The chapter concludes with recommendations in regard to what may be done to prevent this harm.

We are grateful for initial funding for the project; this research is based upon from The Norwegian Animal Protection Fund.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Regulations include: 1) Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein including the Annexes containing a list of species regulated in trade. 2) Implementing regulation: Commission Regulation (EC) No. 865/2006 of 4 May 2006 laying down detailed rules concerning the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 by regulating trade therein. These two regulations constitute the legal framework for all EU governments and regulate international as well as internal trade in wild animals and plants in the EU.

  2. 2.

    ‘The EU-TWIX database has been developed to assist national law enforcement agencies, including CITES Management Authorities and prosecutors, in their task of detecting, analysing, and monitoring illegal activities related to trade in fauna and flora covered by the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations. The main section of the database is designed to become a unique source of centralized data on seizures and offences reported by all 28 EU member states. The purpose of EU-TWIX is to assist with strategic analyses and carrying out field investigations’ (EU-TWIX, 2015). According to Sina et al. (2016), the EU-TWIX database gives an overview on all seizures of illegal wildlife species traded from 2007–2014.

  3. 3.

    Statistics provided upon request.

  4. 4.

    Canaries constitute 90 per cent of seized animals, most destined to be caged as ‘pets’. This is a contradiction in terms; a bird who is caged can hardly be ‘petted’, and the cage constructs both a physical and a social distance.

  5. 5.

    In fact, identifying how trends develop and how to subsequently reduce consumer demand is a crucial area for future research.

  6. 6.

    This was apparent in the UK when interviewees explained the negative impact of what appeared to be a simple change to the CITES definition of ‘worked’ and ‘unworked’ specimens which caused widespread confusion among UK traders and enforcers alike; legitimate traders feared interpreting the new rules incorrectly, thereby losing their products or being convicted for a CITES offence, and enforcement agencies were uncertain what to enforce. Given the uncertainty and levels of non-compliance, offenders could exploit this confusion as it made it more difficult to get a conviction should they be caught.

  7. 7.

    Revised in 2009.

  8. 8.

    Regulations that apply are: FOR-1976-11-20-3 Regulation of 20 November 1976 about the prohibition against the importation, commercialization, or keeping in captivity of alien (exotic) animals. (§1). Other regulations which apply are FOR-2004-02-20-464 about the animal welfare conditions for import of live animals. http://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2004-02-20-464. http://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1976-11-20-3. And FOR-1991-07-02-507. Regulation about prohibition of imports of animals and other contagious objects http://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1991-07-02-507.

  9. 9.

    The CITES regulation in Norway: https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2002-11-15-1276.

  10. 10.

    One euro is 9,27 NOK.

  11. 11.

    Independent not-for-profit helping law enforcement agencies locate criminals and solve crimes, providing an anonymous 24/7 phone number for the public to call and report a crime.

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Maher, J., Sollund, R. (2016). Wildlife Trafficking: Harms and Victimization. In: Sollund, R., Stefes, C., Germani, A. (eds) Fighting Environmental Crime in Europe and Beyond. Palgrave Studies in Green Criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95085-0_5

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