Introduction

Algeria is one of the Mediterranean countries with a long medical tradition and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants (Boughrara 2016). Its Islamisation has played a key role in the cultural development of plants as medicinal agents (Bouzabata 2013). Its geographical location and history have led to a cultural crossbreeding and fusion between Islamic medicine and Mediterranean pharmacopeias (Eddouks et al. 2007). However, this traditional knowledge is inherited and transmitted orally from one generation to the next, which makes it vulnerable to loss; especially since the new generation is not interested in archiving and preserving the know-how of the older generation (Bouasla and Bouasla 2017).

This traditional medicine is provided by traditional practitioners. who according to the World Health Organization (WHO) "are recognized by the community in which they live as competent to provide healthcare through the use of herbal, animal or mineral substances and other methods based both on the socio-cultural and religious foundation and on knowledge, behavior and beliefs related to physical, mental and social well-being, as well as to the etiology of diseases prevalent in the community" (Sissoko 2006). These traditional practitioners may practice different therapies such as herbal medicines, naturopathy, acupuncture and manual therapies such as chiropractic, osteopathy as well as other related techniques including qigong, tai chi, yoga, thermal medicine, and other physical, mental, spiritual and mind–body therapies (“WHO traditional medicine strategy 2022). Herbalists and healers are the ones who use plants the most; the former know their uses and sell them while the latter treat with non-conventional methods. They can diagnose ailments and prescribe the appropriate medicinal plants.

The Algerian Sahara, one of the largest deserts in the world and representing 90% of the national territory, is characterized by a diverse climate that offers great biodiversity that has unfortunately been rarely studied (Ozenda 2004). The presence of several ethnic groups with different nutritional and therapeutic habits makes this region very interesting for studies on the relationship between humans and the flora of their environment.

Given the absence of local pharmacopeias, several studies aimed to explore the ethnobotanical knowledge of the region, and to list the medicinal plants used by the local population (Merzaia 2015; Benarba 2015, 2016; Bouafia et al. 2021; Hadjadj et al. 2015; Hammiche and Maiza 2006; Miara et al. 2019b; Ould El Hadj et al. 2003; Telli et al. 2016; Yasser et al. 2018).

Adrar is located in southwestern Algeria and covers an area of 4,27,971 Km2 (19.9% of the country's surface area). It is a real oasis archipelago made up of 4 regions (Gourara, Touat, Tidikelt and Tanezrouft). Its population is made up of several strata: the chorfas (noble descendants of the family of the prophet), the merabtine (descendants of a saint), the Ahrar (free people representing the Arab) and Zenet tribes and the haratins (descendants of former slaves) (Yousfi 2017), which makes its culturally diverse which is reflected in the food and therapeutic habits. This is the population that often resorts to herbal medicine to treat health problems, mainly because of the small number of pharmacies in the region (1 pharmacy per 1000 inhabitants), which does not provide them access to the conventional treatments.

This study is in addition to the above-mentioned ones, in order to enrich the data already collected in the Saharan region. Its main objective is to explore the diversity of the medicinal flora of the Adrar region and to archive the knowledge of herbal medicine of its population in order to preserve this know-how, which could be transmitted to the future generations. Our survey is the first to target both traditional practitioners and the inhabitants of this region.

Material and methods

Study area

Adrar is located in the Algerian Sahara in the southwest of the country, 1543 km from the capital-Algiers. It is bordered to the north by the wilaya (administrative division of Algeria) of El-Bayadh, to the north-west by the wilaya of Bechar, to the west by the wilaya of Tindouf, to the south by Mali, to the south–west by Mauritania, to the south–east by the wilaya of Tamanrasset, and to the north–east by the wilaya of Ghardaia (Fig. 1). Its geographical coordinates are: Latitude: 26°03´ to 28°03´ North, Longitude: 0°30´ East to 0°30´ West with mean altitude of 222 m (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 1
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Source: ONS (2018)

Geographical location of the wilaya of Adrar.

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Fig. 2
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Distribution of the surveyed population by place of residence

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It is composed of 11 dairas (subdivisions of the wilaya), 28 communes (smallest administrative division headed by a mayor) and 294 ksours (fortified villages of Berber architecture), all divided into four regions: the Gourara (4 dairas) constituting the northern part of the wilaya and the Touat (5 dairas) the central part. The Tidikelt in the south-eastern region, and the Tanezrouft in the south-western part. The latter is difficult to access due to the lack of transport and was not included in the study (Fig. 1).

The population of Adrar is estimated to be 5,13,966 according to the general census of population and housing of 2018 (ONS 2018).

Two climates predominate in the region viz. the pre-Saharan (semi-desert) from Timimoun to the west of Bechar and the Saharan (desert) at Timiaouine in the south. The ambient temperature can exceed 45 °C in summer and is often low in winter, reaching 0 °C in December and January (INSID 2021). Rainfall is irregular and frequently less than 20 mm per month.

The Adrar region is characterized by a desertic relief, subdivided into Reg (horizontal surface covered with gravelly debris) (Boutadara and Ali 2009); the Tadmait plateau with an average altitude of 500 m (Bellal et al. 2016); Erg (accumulation of sand brought by the wind in different aspects) (Moulay 2014); sabkhas (depressions with salty soils and no vegetation).

Ethnobotanical survey

The survey was conducted with 20 traditional practitioners (13 herbalists and 7 healers), as well as 206 subjects from the local population, over a period of 8 months (October 2019–May 2020). Two questionnaires were prepared (Supplementary File 1), one for traditional healers and another for the inhabitants of the region. They were in two languages (Arabic and French) so that it can be understood by all participants. The questions were combined from different similar surveys in order to gather as much information as possible about the interviewee and the plants concerned (Bouasla and Bouasla 2017; Tahraoui 2007). The interviews with traditional healers were oral, direct and face-to-face in which respondents were asked questions about the basic survey information (age, level of education, etc.) and used plants (used part, method of preparation, etc.).

The survey of the population was carried out using questionnaire forms in Arabic and French which contained questions about the informant (age, sex, academic level, family situation and therapeutic practice) and the ethnobotanical knowledge (preparation methods, the uses of medicinal plants.). Respondents were approached at home, markets, herbal shops, pharmacies and health facilities in the area, who were available for the survey. Explanation of the context and purpose of the study were provided at the beginning of the survey. They were interviewed orally with the dialect of the region, in cases wherein people were unable to answer the questionnaire by themselves.

Informant consent was obtained verbally before starting the questionnaire, and the ethical guidelines prescribed by the International Society of Ethnobiology were respected (Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2022).

The species were identified using different references on the Saharan flora (Quézel and Santa 1963, Ibn-Tattou 2008; Belakhdar, 1998; Trabut 1935; Merad 1973).

The scientific names of the species were checked on www.theplantlist.org. Voucher specimens were kept in the pharmacognosy laboratory of the Pharmacy Department at the Faculty of medicine- Dr. Benaouda Benzerdjeb.

Data analysis

The data was analyzed using IBM-SPSS Statistic 23, while graphical representations were made using Microsoft Office Excel®. Quantitative data analysis was conducted by using following:

  • The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) is an index used to demonstrate the local importance of each plant species. It was calculated based on the frequency of citation (Fc} is the number of informants, who mentioned the use of a plant species) divided by the total number of informants (N) who participated in the study (Tardio and Pardo-de-Santayana 2008).

    $$RFC = Fc/N$$

  • The fidelity level (FL) was calculated to quantify the importance of a species for a given disease. It is the ratio of the number of informants citing the species for a given disease (Np) to the total number of informants citing the plant for any disease (N) (Phillips and Gentry 1993):

    $$FL = Np/N \times 100.$$

  • Informant consensus factor (ICF) measures the homogeneity of information among informants on the medicinal uses of plants. ICF values are low (close to 0) if plants are randomly selected or if there is little exchange of information between the population. They approach 1 when informants agree on the use of the plants concerned (Trotter and Logan 1986). It was calculated according to the formula:

    $$ICF = \left( {Nur - Nt} \right)/\left( {Nur - 1} \right).$$

    where, Nur is the number of citations used in each category and Nt is the number of species reported in each category.

Results and discussion

Profile of the study population

Traditional practitioners

Majority of the traditional practitioners (65%) were men, as against 35% in women category. It is probably due to the culture and traditions of the region, where women are not encouraged to work outside the family environment (Boudjelal et al. 2013), nor to converse with strangers (Miara et al. 2019b). Most of the traditional practitioners were aged between 32 and 52 years (Fig. 3) and the same age range was observed in other regions of the country (Boudjelal et al. 2013). This could be due to the time required to gain the necessary experience to be able to practice this profession. Sixty percent of the respondents acquired their knowledge through experience, 35% received trainings and 5% through family initiation.

Fig. 3
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Distribution of traditional healers by age group

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The number of herbalists (65%) was greater than that of healers (35%). This is because many herbalists come from other regions to settle in Adrar. Their number is growing. There were 150 herbalists in 2017, which increased to 161 in 2020 (Ministère Algérien du commerce 2020). It is also due to the carefully guarded secret of the healer's profession. To become a healer, the person concerned must be trained by another recognized healer, which is called "techyakh" in the region. The practice of herbal medicine in the country does not require any diploma or license and a trade register is considered enough. The herbalists interviewed fell into two categories: first category with 3 Herbalists who sold spices, dried plants and mixtures prepared with the powders and honey called "agda" (عقدة) to treat certain diseases such as anemia and weight loss. Second category included 4 Herbalists specializing in the sale of packaged herbal products such as herbal teas.

Population of the region

Of the 206 patients interviewed, 84% reported using plants, 68.4% of them were women and most (30.46%) were aged between 28 and 38 years. About 55.4% lived in rural areas and 35.63% were illiterate (Table 1). Significant rates of herbal medicine use have also been reported in other regions of the country such as Annaba, El Taref, Tiaret, Mascara and Ouargla (Benarba 2015; Bouzabata et al. 2020; Miara et al. 2013; Telli et al. 2016). The small number of pharmacies in the region, high cost of medicines and lack of infrastructure/modern medical personnel may explain this (Fundiko 2017). We also noticed that the population trusts everything that is natural and has easy access to medicinal plants. Patients are often dissatisfied with their doctors and also want to avoid the side effects of medicines.

Table 1 The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
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A relationship between use of traditional medicine and gender was observed. Women used plants more frequently than the men. This result is similar to that was reported earlier (Boughrara 2016). This is because of their responsibilities as mothers, they administer first aid especially to their children and participate in group discussions.

Of the respondents, 55.4% of plant users lived in urban areas. The living area did not influence the use of herbal medicine (p = 0.27 > 0.05). This is in line with other studies conducted in the USA, Uganda and Tlemcen (Loman 2003; Nuwaha and Musinguzi 2013; Saïdi and Ali Belhadj 2016). This again proves that the idea we have that people in rural areas use plants more commonly is wrong. Also age and education level have no relation with the use of herbal medicines (p = 0.06 > 0.05; p = 0.22 > 0.05). The lifestyle and culture of the inhabitants of Adrar meant that the use of herbal medicine affected all age groups regardless of their level of education. A similar result was observed in the region of Tlemcen (Achouri and Cherki 2018). However, this was contradictory to Telli et al. (2016), where plants were used by people with a lower level of education or (Saïdi and Ali Belhadj 2016) where elderly people were the ones who used plants the most.

Phytotherapy in the region of Adrar

Diversity of plants used

Our study identified 126 species belonging to 47 families cited by traditional healers and inhabitants of the Adrar region. Table 3 summarizes the results obtained, in which the species are listed in alphabetical order. This number is higher than that reported (46 to 84 species) in other studies in the region (Benarba 2016; Yasser et al. 2018; Amrouche et al. 2019). The diversity of plant species obtained is related to the degree of knowledge and uses of the plants by the population of Adrar as well as the fact that we targeted traditional practitioners along with plant users. Most of these plants (77.3%) grew spontaneously (42.3%) or were cultivated (57.7%) in the region and 22.7% were introduced either from other wilayas or from other countries.

The most dominantly represented family was Lamiaceae with 21.9% contribution (Fig. 4), in contrast to the Touat region wherein members of Asteraceae were the most commonly used (Yasser et al. 2018). This was followed by Apiaceae family with 16.8% and Asteraceae family with 14.8%. The Lamiaceae family was in the majority in other studies conducted locally in Msila, Bordj Bouarriridj and Ouergla (Madani et al. 2012; Miara et al. 2019a; Telli et al. 2016); as well as in the Mediterranean region (Benítez 2010). This can be explained by the fact that this family is among the ones with the most medicinal species (Benítez 2010) as well as the richness of the region's flora with species belonging to the Lamiaceae (Telli et al. 2016).

Fig. 4
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Distribution of families by number of citations

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Plants parts used and preparation methods

The most commonly used parts for preparation were leaves (30.8%), followed by fruits (22.73%), aerial parts (15.19%) and stems (13.6%) (Fig. 5). Several authors in different regions (Constantine, Mila, Sétif, Mascara and Skikda) of Algeria (Benarba 2016; Chermat and Gharzouli 2015; Ouelbani et al. 2016) and in other Mediterranean countries (Benítez 2010; Eddouks et al. 2017) have noted the predominant use of leaves. Their ease and speed of harvesting compared to other plant parts and being the site of photosynthesis and storage of secondary metabolites have led to their increased use (Francis Xavier et al. 2015). Two species had more than one part used for medicinal purposes: Zea mays whose styles called (lekbel) and seeds (tafsout) could be used for the treatment of urinary system problems. Also, Myrtus communis, whose leaves (rayhan) were used to relieve gastrointestinal problems, and the aerial parts (edrour) against cardiovascular diseases.

Fig. 5
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Distribution of plant parts used

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The drugs were mainly used orally (74.6%), followed by external route (22.4%) and fumigation (3.2%). The duration of use did not exceed 15 days. The oral route was the main one used in other regions of the country (Benarba 2016; Chermat and Gharzouli 2015; Saïdi and Ali 2016) as well as in other African countries such as Ghana and Cameron (Asase and Kadera 2014; Etame-Loe et al. 2018).

Most of the formulations were prepared by infusion (53.3%), which was also in accordance with other reports (Miara et al. 2019b; Ouelbani et al. 2016). This may be related to the nature of active components contained in the used parts, ease of preparation, ease of administration and maintenance of effectiveness of the components without degrading them at high temperature.

Most of the species mentioned (70%) were used in mixtures with other plants or non-vegetable ingredients. The use of mixtures of different species can result in a synergistic effect as well as the mitigation of toxicity or adverse effects of some of the plants in the mixture (Bruschi 2011). The addition of ingredients such as honey, milk, olive oil or sugar aims to improve the acceptability of some plants with an unbearable bitter taste. Honey and milk remained the most commonly used adjuvants. Similar results have been reported in Mascara, Algeria and even in other countries such as India and Argentina (Benarba 2015; Bhatia et al. 2015; Zamudio et al. 2010).

Most cited species

Based on the information obtained from the population of the study area, the different health problems were classified into seven categories (Table 2). Of the 126 species, 86 plants were cited only once or twice and 16 plants had more than 16 citations. The most cited species were: Artemisia herba-alba Asso. (60 citations), Origanum vulgare L. (51 citations), Foeniculum vulgare L. (42 citations), Mentha spicata L. (39 citations), Trigonella foenum graecum L. (31 citations) (Table 3). Many surveys revealed that Artemisia herba-alba Asso. was the most used species in the country (Benarba 2016; Boudjelal et al. 2013; Bouzabata et al. 2020; Telli et al. 2016). Origanum vulgare L. was the most used plant by the population of Mila (Ouelbani et al. 2016).

Table 2 Categories of different ailments (Benarba 2016)
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Table 3 List of the most frequently used medicinal plants in the region of Adrar
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Artemisia herba-alba is mainly used in urogenital and respiratory diseases. In Algeria, this plant has been reported by numerous studies for its use against ulcers, indigestion, diarrhea, stomach problems, inflammation, diabetes, hypertension, colds and bronchitis (Chehma and Djebar 2008; Ouelbani et al. 2016; Hassaïne et al. 2019; Tahraoui 2007).

A. herba-alba use in respiratory and urogenital diseases may be due to its richness in terpene compounds: 1,8-cineole, β-thujone, α-thujone and camphor; which gives it an antiseptic power by excellence. High antidiabetic and anticholesterolemic activities were recorded from leaf extracts in different studies (Gacem et al. 2020).

In our survey, Origanum vulgare was used in skin diseases (pimples), respiratory tract diseases, metabolic disorders and gastrointestinal system disorders. The same plant has been reported for its benefits in respiratory problems, hypertension, diuretic, antiseptic, eczema, rheumatic pain, tumor, digestive problems antispasmodic, carminative and emmenagogue properties (Boudjelal et al. 2013; Miara et al. 2019a; Ouelbani et al. 2016). This plant has been the subject of several studies, demonstrating its cytotoxic, antiproliferative and anticancer activity. This effect was attributed to the high concentration of rosmarinic acid (Koldaş et al. 2015). Cytotoxicity of the essential oil has been demonstrated on human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Begnini et al. 2014). Its activity on lipoxygenase has been demonstrated, hence its anti-inflammatory activity (Koukoulitsa et al. 2006). The essential oil of O. vulgare is rich in carvacrol and/or thymol, linalool, p-cymene and polyphenols (flavonoids and phenolic acids), which have antiseptic properties and thus this plant was very commonly used in the respiratory affections (Gacem et al. 2020).

Most cited ailments

The results obtained show that the species listed were mainly used in the treatment of digestive (Nur = 388), respiratory (Nur = 222) and metabolic diseases (Nur = 179) (Fig. 6) (Table 4). The same result was obtained in Mascara in Algeria, Morocco, Lebanon (Baydoun et al. 2015; Benarba 2015; Jamila and Mostafa, 2014) and also in Touat in the same region (Yasser et al. 2018). But it is different from that reported by (Benarba, 2016), wherein the predominant use by herbalists in the wilaya of Adrar and Bechar was against kidney diseases and cancer (locally called "el mard ecchin ين". The predominance of digestive diseases is probably related to an unhealthy lifestyle. Indeed, the population of the Adrar region is known for a diet very rich in spices and fats.

Fig. 6
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Different categories of diseases mentioned in the survey

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Table 4 Informative consensus factor for medicinal plants used in the region of Adrar
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The highest ICF values were recorded for allergies, digestive and respiratory problems (ICF = 0.923, ICF = 0.919, ICF = 0.914). These three diseases categories were treated with 2, 32 and 20 species respectively. The most cited were Nigella sativa L. for allergies, O. vulgare. and Foeniculum vulgare L. for digestive diseases and A. herba-alba for respiratory disorders. The ICF value for cancer and dermatological diseases was 0.905 and 0.902. Three and 10 species were cited for each disease, respectively. The most repeated were Nigella sativa L. against tumors and T. foenum graecum against dermatological diseases. This shows that there is a kind of consensus on the indications of the plants used, as majority of the users used them for the same reasons. Digestive disorders had the highest ICF in most of the studies in Algeria (in Souk Ahras, Constantine, Mila, Mascara, and Bordj Bou Arreridj) and in other countries like Morocco, Tunisia, Italy and Spain (Benarba 2015; Benítez 2010; Bouasla and Bouasla 2017; El-Hilaly et al. 2003; Leporatti and Ghedira 2009; Miara et al. 2019a; Ouelbani et al. 2016a). This could be explained by the fact that digestive disorders have quite common and easy to identify signs.

Fidelity level

The FL was calculated for the 10 most cited plants, and we considered values above 50 as significant. Table 5 indicate that seven species viz. Mentha spicata L. (98.8%); Foeniculum vulgare L. (97.9%); Ocimum basilicum L. (96.6%); Cassia angustifolia Vahl. (96.0%); Origanum vulgare L. (93.9%) and Trigonella foenum graecum L.(93.0%) had the highest values to treat digestive problems-. Artemisia herba-alba Asso. (96.66%) was used for respiratory diseases and Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr & L.M. Perry (96%) for skeleto-muscular diseases. No plant had a 100% FL unlike other studies in the country with one species each (Bouafia et al. 2021; Miara et al. 2019b) and seven species (Benarba 2015).

Table 5 Fidelity level values for the 10 most cited species
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The best known traditional use of Mentha spicata L. is for diarrhea (Mahendran et al. 2021). It is also used for stomachache, digestive and anthelmintic (Buso et al. 2020). In traditional Nepalese medicine, the whole plant is used for dysentery, indigestion, stomachache and urinary retention (Adhikari et al. 2019), which corresponds to our study wherein it was the mostly used against digestive problems. It was also used for cold, cough (Asowata-Ayodele et al. 2016), and jaundice (Sharma et al. 2012). The anti-diabetic activity of the aqueous extract of the plant has been demonstrated on streptozotocin diabetic rats (Farid et al. 2018). The antiproliferative activity of the essential oil has been proven on different cancer cell lines including human ductal breast epithelial tumor T47D cell line, human colon cancer HCT-116 and human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cell line (Torres-Martínez et al. 2019). The hepatoprotective effect of the aqueous extract of the plant was demonstrated on nicotine-induced oxidative damage in the liver and erythrocytes of a rat model at doses of 100 mg/kg (Ben Saad et al. 2018).

Syzygium aromaticum was the most used against keleton-musclar diseases. The anti-inflammatory effect of clove, specifically eugenol, has been demonstrated in numerous studies including in human dermal fibroblasts (Han and Parker, 2017) and against skin inflammation (Maurya et al. 2020). The anti-inflammatory effect is also present for the polyphenolic extract of cloves (carvacrol) (Issac et al. 2015). Clove is also used for its analgesic properties due to its agonism with capsaicin (Ohkubo and Shibata 1997) and activation of chloride/calcium channels in ganglionar cells (Li et al. 2008). In addition, eugenol showed greater efficacy against inflammatory-type pain compared to diclofenac (Lugo-Lugo et al. 2019).

New reports for medicinal plants and uses

The comparison of the results obtained with those of other studies in Algeria and in the neighboring countries (Chaibou et al. 2020; Mahamane et al. 2020; Nassiri et al. 2016), helped us to identify 13 species, which are cited for the first time in the country (in bold in Table 3): Corrigiola telephiifolia Pourr., Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich., Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav, Brassica rapa subsp. rapa L., Cleome amblyocarpa Baratte et Murb, Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Solenostemma argel (Delile) Hayne., Musa acuminata L. and Panicum miliaceum L. Sometimes, it is the part used that is cited for the first time in an Algerian region for example seeds of Zea mays L., Cyperus esculentus L., Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. and Daucus carota L.

New uses were recorded for 13 species (Table 6). The most cited species, A. herba alba Asso. (60 citations) is used in the Adrar region against parasites and eye diseases, indications that we found for the first time. Origanum vulgare L. (51 citations) is known in the Mediterranean region for various medicinal properties (against enterobiasis and stomach ache, cough, sores, throat and respiratory tract disorders Alarcόn et al. 2015; Eddouks et al. 2017), heartburn and asthma, and as an aperitif, carminative, depurative, digestive and sedative (Vitalini, 2015), antidiabetic, and in the treatment of cold, flu and urinary inflammation (Cakilcioglu et al. 2011; Özdemir and Alpınar 2015), against diabetes (Ali-Shtayeh et al. 2012) but the cutaneous indication against pimples was mentioned in our study for the first time.

Table 6 New uses of the plants in comparison with the studies made in Algeria and the neighboring countries
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New uses were recorded for Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. It has been cited in the treatment of urogenital diseases and menstrual cycle disorders. These indications are different from those found in other regions of Algeria (diabetes, hypertension, digestive disorders, sterility and thyroid problems) (Bouasla and Bouasla 2017; Bouzabata et al. 2020). Nevertheless, this has been recorded in other Mediterranean countries, Morocco and Italy (Eddouks et al. 2020; Guarino et al. 2008). It has even been used to reduce lactation during weaning. Indication cited for the first time in our study.

Conclusion

This study enabled us to prepare an inventory of the medicinal species used in the Adrar region, which constitutes a large part of the Algerian Sahara. It has shown that despite the evolution of medicine, use of traditional treatments is still relevant and has been passed down from generation to generation. More and more young people are turning to plants and becoming herbalists. New recipes are emerging as new species become available in the market. A total of 126 plants belonging to 47 families were identified in this study, of which 13 were cited for the first time in Algeria as medicinal plants. The majority of them come from the region, which reflects the importance that the population attaches to phytotherapy. The species recorded were mainly used against digestive problems, given the diet of the inhabitants of the region, which was rich in spices and fats. The information collected is a valuable source for enriching the national database and contributing to the establishment of an Algerian Pharmacopoeia in order to preserve this heritage.