Introduction

The significance of mosquito vectors in the spread of deadly diseases to humans is unavoidable and indisputable [148]. Mosquitoes are the cause of 40 million deaths every year owing to the spread of dreadful diseases due to their varying temperature and topography [65, 139]. India is a hotspot for many mosquito-borne diseases like chikungunya, brain fever, dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, hemorrhagic fever, malaria, filariasis, yellow fever, and Zika fever (WHO).

A study indicates the insecticidal properties of various plants, including Allium sativum, Artemisia absinthium, Citrullus colocynthis, Laurus nobilis, Mentha pulegium, Myrtus communis, Nerium oleander, Ocimum basilicum,Cassia accidentalis L,Cleistanthus collinus and Origanum majorana  [1, 17, 182].

Plant-based insecticides have been used in traditional medicine for many years to protect people from mosquitoes. Ethnobotanical studies provide beneficial information on traditional repellent plants, which may be utilized to create new plant-based pesticides [223, 249].

In this scenario control of vector mosquitoes, using synthetic insecticides have high operating costs and create environmental pollution and toxic to nontarget organism [40, 170, 171]. As a result, the development of alternate methods and approaches for controlling mosquito vectors using natural resources has emerged as an emerging area for research [39, 45, 75]. Plants have a highly active biological compounds and it is alternate and safer than chemical insecticides, low-cost, biodegradability, and non-toxic to other organisms [83, 81, 88, 208].

Drugs derived from plants have highly active, effective, reduced susceptibility to resistance, broader societal acceptance, and so forth [86, 90, 99]. There is currently no data to suggest that resistance to botanical insecticides. Hence, the current review concentrated on the larvicidal potential properties derived from various plants species.

Habit and habitat

Mosquito larvae and pupae live in lentic waters. They cannot live in running streams. During the day, adult mosquitoes hide in foliage near water or in cool, moist places. In the evening, various types of female mosquitoes fly in search of a blood meal. Adult mosquitoes have a clear preference for the types of their oviposition systems [37].

Female mosquitoes lay their eggs in tree holes, tidal flats in salt marshes, sewage outfall ponds, irrigated pastures, rainwater ponds, and unused articles holding water, and so on [52].

Mosquito eating patterns are distinct. Females feed on human blood and the blood of other vertebrate animals such as cattle, horses, goats, all species of birds, including chickens, and all forms of wild animals, such as deer and rabbits. Male mosquitoes exclusively consume plant liquids [173, 195].

Major mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases

There are around 3500 mosquito species documented of these just 200 of them are harmful to humans and other forms of life [141]. Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex species are the three most hazardous species [183]. Aedes is a vector for alpha and flaviviruses, which cause deadly diseases like dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, and yellow fever. Similarly, Anopheles is a malaria vector, and Culex spreads Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever, avian malaria, and elephantiasis [80, 110] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Mosquito-borne diseases

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Genus aedes

The genus Aedes mosquitoes more than 1250 species and various subgenera identified in tropical and subtropical regions. Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes japonicas, and Aedes vittatus are among the most well-known and recognized vectors for various diseases, of these notable yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, and Zika [196].

Chikungunya

Chikungunya is a viral disease spread by Aedes species that is caused by a single-stranded RNA alphavirus (CHIKV). Chikungunya virus transmitted by the genus Aedes, most notably Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus [145]. Worldwide, a recent report says that chikungunya mortality is about 46,800. In 2022, there were around 8067 cases documented in India likewise 3711 persons have been confirmed up until September 17th, 2023 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Chikungunya situation in India (2018–2023) (NVBDCP)

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Dengue

Dengue fever caused by four immunologically related strains of a single-stranded RNA flavivirus (DENV-1-4). It occurs more frequently in tropical and subtropical areas and breeds in stagnant water in urban and suburban settings, such as vases, buckets, tires, and other household water containers. Humans are infected with the virus by the bites of infected female mosquitoes; the primary vectors of dengue fever are Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes japonicas, and Aedes vittatus [58]. According to government data, 223,251 cases of dengue fever were registered in 2022, resulting in 308 fatalities. In the current situation, 94,198 people have been infected, with 91 deaths documented up until September 17th, 2023 (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Dengue situation in India (2018–2023) (NVBDCP)

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Yellow fever

Yellow fever is an epidemic-prone, vaccine-preventable mosquito-borne disease spread to humans through the bites of infectious mosquitoes. Yellow fever is caused by a single-stranded RNA flavivirus (a virus spread by vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, or other arthropods), which is transferred to humans by the bites of infected Aedes mosquitoes [85]. From January 1, 2021, to December 7, 2022, there were 203 confirmed and 252 probable cases, including 40 deaths reported by WHO (WHO data https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON431).

Zika

In tropical and subtropical areas, the Zika virus (ZIKV) is largely transmitted by infected mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, particularly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The Zika virus is also passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy, as well as through sexual contact, blood and blood product transfusion, and possibly organ transplantation [138]. The Zika virus has affected three states in India: Maharashtra has recorded seven cases, while the virus has been identified in Kerala and Karnataka as of November 2023. According to the World Health Organization, there are 69 fatalities worldwide in 2023.(WHO 2023).

Genus anopheles

Anopheles, like any other flying insect, are effective vectors and can quickly transmit infection through bites. Approximately 530 species are recognized; however, only 30–40 species of Anopheles transmit malaria in humans [63]. Filarial worm also transmitted by Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles flavirostris, and Anopheles barbirostris [41].

Malaria

Malaria is a parasitic infection caused by the Plasmodium protozoa that is most commonly encountered in tropical areas. Five Plasmodium parasite types cause human malaria there are Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium knowlesi. The most dangerous malaria parasite is Plasmodium falciparum, whereas the most common is Plasmodium vivax. Malaria can also be transmitted through infected needles and blood transfusions [129, 132, 133, 175]. Female Anopheles mosquitoes transmit it to humans. Malaria vectors include the following: An. gambiae, An arabiensis, An. coluzzii, An. funestus, An. nili, and An. moucheti [163] and other species that are engaged malaria transmission is aided by An. carnevalei, An. coustani, An. hancocki, and An. leesoni. An. marshallii. An. melas, An. paludis. An. pharoensis, An. ovengensis An. wellcomei, An. rufipes, and An. ziemanni [116]. Malaria can be preventable and treatable. In India, 176,522 cases were registered, with 83 deaths noted in 2022. There have been 144,527 confirmed cases of malaria, with 28 deaths recorded as of September-17-2023 (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
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Malaria situation in India (2019–2023) (NVBDCP)

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Genus culex

Culex, known as the common mosquito, has over 750 documented Culex mosquito species. Culex species play a role in the spread of arboviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley virus, St. Louis encephalitis, and Western and Eastern equine encephalitis. W. bancrofti (Flariasis) and Dirofilaria immitis (Dirofilariasis) [235]. Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. vishnui, Cx. pseudovishnui, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. epidesmus. Cx. fuscocephala, Cx. gelidus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. whitmorei, Cx. neavei, Cx. poicilipes, Cx. perfidiosus, Cx. guiarti, Cx. vansomereni, and Cx. annulioris Cx. albiventris, Cx. nebulosus, and Cx. telesilla are key vector species [30].

West Nile virus

West Nile virus (WNV) is an RNA virus with a single strand that causes West Nile illness. It belongs to the flaviviridae family, and the genus flavivirus, especially Culex species, are the primary vectors of the virus. The primary WNV vectors are Cx. pipens, Cx. tarsalis, and Cx. quinqifasciatus [178, 255]. According to the World Health Organization 2023 data, there are 2328 deaths globally.

Rift valley fever

Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) is a member of the Phlebovirus genus in the Bunyavirales order. Some Bunyavirales viruses, such as hantaviruses and the Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus, can also cause sickness in humans. According to media accounts, a Kashmir-based virologist detected the virus in human cells. Mosquitos propagate the virus among farmed animals, who ultimately pass it on to humans; Culex is the major vector [48].

Japanese encephalitis

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is transmitted by mosquitoes and is caused by a virus from the Flaviviridae family. Domestic pigs are the primary reservoirs of this virus. They then contract the virus from birds, particularly pond herons, egrets, and mosquitoes [278].

Though 27 mosquito species have been identified as JE vectors, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. vishnui are most common in India. The Japanese encephalitis virus has been reported to have been isolated from several mosquito species, including Cx. epidesmus, An. hyrcanus, An. subpictus, An. barbirostris, and Ma. annulifera, all of which have been identified as JE vectors [279]. JE virus isolated from Cx. whitmorei, Cx. pseudovishnui, Cx. gelidus, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, and Cx. fuscocephala [23, 159]. JE is more common in northeastern and southern India. In India, 1109 instances were reported in 2022, with 130 fatalities. As of September 17th, 2023, there have been 828 confirmed cases of malaria, with 48 fatalities (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Japanese Encephalitis situation in India (2018–2023) (NVBDCP)

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Filariasis

Filariasis is a parasitic infection by Filariodidea nematodes (roundworms). It is one of the most serious public health issues in tropical and subtropical areas of India. Brugia malayi, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Brugia rugiatimori are the three forms of filarial worms. Of these, 90% of the cases are caused by Wuchereria bancrofti [47, 72].

Culex is the main vector of filariasis, 59 mosquito species identified as filarial vectors. Cx. quinquefasciatus is a significant vector, and the isolation of the Japanese encephalitis virus from numerous mosquito species in India has been reported, including Cx. pipiens, Cx. australiens, Cx. pallens, Cx. globocoxitus, and Cx. molestus can also serve as a filarial vector. An. gambiae, An. flavirostris, An. barbirostris and Mansonioides such as Ma. annulifera, Ma. uniformis, and Ma. indiana are significant vectors of Burgian filariasis [153, 240]. According to current estimates, 120 million individuals in 83 countries are infected with lymphatic filarial parasites, and more than 1.1 billion are at risk of infection (WHO 2023).

St. Louis encephalitis

The viral disease St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) preserved in birds and transferred to humans and horses by the mosquito Culex nigrapalpus. Infected mosquitos spread St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) from birds to humans and other mammals [64, 248].

Methods

Literature review on plant extracts against larvicidal action in various parts of the world was collected from Internet databases, WHO, indexed scientific publications, such as Web of Science, Taylor and Francis, PubMed, Research Gate, Springer, Wiley, JSTOR, Google Scholar, and National Center for Vector Borne Disease Control (NCVBDC) the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India database. Key terms include mosquito-borne diseases, phytochemicals and pharmacological potential, mosquito diseases, Culex, Anopheles, Aedes, plant extracts, larvicidal activity, LC50 and LC90, and other peer-reviewed publishers from 2007 to 2023. Despite the fact that the study was limited to the use of plants in mosquito control, the search engine results were used to further explain the goal of this review.

Botanical description in familywise

The literature was mined for information on botanical names and families. Confused or incorrect plant and botanical identification data is omitted. All collected botanical names and author citations were checked using the Tropicos standard database (http://www.tropicos.org/). Many synonyms are used in different publications for many plants. Accepted botanical names were placed in those situations, and synonyms were attached to accepted botanical names. However, in some situations, popularly known synonyms are given in parentheses with the recognized botanical names.

Discussion and conclusions

In this view, for mosquito control programs, various families, different plants, and diverse solvents were used. The larvicidal activity and lethal concentration vary for various plant extracts for the reason that plant species, parts of the plants used, age of the plants, mosquito species, larval stages, and different solvents used for extraction. In this literature review, various plants with larvicidal efficacy are summarized (Table 1), the primary active principle compound in plants has a significant impact on larvicidal properties. Some significant phytocompounds found in the leaves of Andrographis paniculata, including, as Andrographolide, Deoxyandrographolide, Neoandrographolide, and Isoandrographolide, are important for the larvicidal activity of An. stephensi [135].

Table 1 Larvicidal activity and their potential of various plant extracts
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The larval mortality of Cx. quinquefasciatus may be caused by Chenopodium album leaves extracts that include active chemicals such as B-carotene, ascorbic acid, and catechins (Zia [259]). Similarly, biochemicals, such as carvacrol, thymol, eugenol, and chavicol, found in Coleus aromaticus methanolic leaf extracts may also contribute to Ae. aegypti mortality [69,70,71].

According to Assemie et al. [21], plant extracts of Allium sativum L. and Zingiber officinale were tested against filarial vectors, such as Anopheles funestus, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles pharoensis, Culex antennatus, and Culex quinquefasciatus. The results showed that ethanol extracts of A. sativum have a significant effect on An. funestus, whereas aqueous extracts have a significant effect only on An. gambiae. Similarly, ethanol extracts of Z. officinale show a substantial effect only for An. pharoensis; on the other hand, methanol and water extracts had no effect on filariasis vectors. The result finds that A. sativum exhibits a greater toxic influence than Z. officinale extract against filariasis vectors.

A study compared mosquito larvicidal (Aedes aegypti) efficiency against O. americanum and O. basilicum extracts. The most prevalent components are camphor, limonene, longifolene, caryophyllene, and estragole, where all have larvicidal effects [150].

Aqueous extracts from the leaves and roots of Plantago major L. and Plantago lagopus L. exhibited larvicidal activity against Culex pipiens L. fourth instar. The root extracts of Plantago major showed low concentration, with high death rates 40–70% after 24 h. The leaf extracts of Plantago major L. showed the lethal concentration (LC50) of 16.068 ppm. Root and leaf extracts of Plantago major L. showed a higher concentration than the Plantago lagopus L. extract used [49].

Vivekanandhan et al. [263] investigated the larvicidal activities of M. cajuputi (Myrtaceae) plant essential oils against the malarial vector, An. stephensi. The essential oils of M. cajuputi showed potent larvicidal activity against the second, third, and fourth larvae of An. stephensi.

The larvicidal efficacy of three medicinal plant extracts, such as O. hadiense, R. officinalis, and C. spinarum, was tested against the third-instar of Aedes aegypti, and the mortality was recorded. Among the solvents examined, the chloroform extracts of O. hadiense had the most potent larvicidal activity at the LC50 and LC90 (24 mg/mL and 198.411 mg/mL, respectively). The extract made using chloroform of C. spinarium exhibited the lowest larvicidal activity, the LC50 and LC90 (736.883 mg/ml and 1188.699 mg/ml, respectively).

The larvicidal activity of Lantana camara Linn and Ocimum gratissimum Linn extracts was evaluated against the malaria vectors A. aegypti, An. subpictus, and C. quinquefasciatus. The results showed the L. camara leaves possess an LC50 range of 18.66–51.35 mg/l and an LC90 range of 87.78–312.21 mg/l. Furthermore, for the O. gratissimum leaf extract, the LC50 range was 52.26–59.09 mg/l, while the LC90 range was 260.22–348.23 mg/l. Together, the results show that the extracts of L. camara and O. gratissimum leaves may be beneficial as effective, low-cost, and eco-friendly insecticides) [233]. Additionally, the review says larvicidal plants and the active compounds are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Pharmacological activities and active compound of various larvicidal plants
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Plant-based bio-insecticides have emerged as viable alternatives to synthetic pesticides for controlling a variety of insects that serve as pests and vectors [157]. Worldwide, plants are a significant source of medicinal materials. In plants, biochemicals also showed evidence of having insecticidal potential. Mosquito activity is present in many well-known plants from various families, including the Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Menispermaceae, Acanthaceae, Zingiberaceae, and Piperaceae [99, 118,131].

Plant-based insecticides are extremely lethal to pest insects, target-specific, harmless to other organisms, and an eco-friendly. Most of the larvicidal studies involved bioassays using various mosquito species, especially those belonging to the genera Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex. All of the plants examined exhibit bioactivity at varying percentages of mortality and dosages [233,280].

Steroids, essential oils, terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolics derived from various plants operate as larvicides, insect development regulators, ovicides, repellents, and powerful pesticides against mosquito vectors [281].

The present review report on 106 larvicidal plants belongs to 41 families against various mosquito species. Among these plant families, reviewed Acanthaceae belongs to 05 larvicidal plants, Amaranthaceae has only one plant, Amaryllidaceae-01, Annonaceae-02, Apiaceae-02, Apocynaceae-08, Aristolochiaceae-02, Asclepiadaceae-01, Asteraceae-10, Bignoniaceae-03, Caesalpiniaceae-01, Cannabaceae-01, Capparidacea-01, Capparidacea-01, Combretaceae-01, Cucurbitaceae-05, Elaeagnaceae-02, Euphorbiaceae-03, Fabaceae-07, Labiatae-01, Lamiaceae-10, Liliaceae-02, Loganiaceae-01, Lythraceae-02,Magnoliaceae-01, Malvaceae-02, Meliaceae-01, Myrtaceae-04, Moraceae-01, Primulaceae-01, Oleaceae-01, Piperaceae-02, Plantaginaceae-01, Plumbaginaceae-01, Polygonaceae-01, Rubiaceae-02, Rutaceae-09, Simarobaceae-01, Solanaceae-03, Ulmaceae-01, Verbenaceae-04, Zingiberaceae-03, respectively. Among the completely larvicidal plants that have been reviewed, excessive plants were present in the Asteraceae (10), Lamiaceae (10), Rutacea (09), Appocynacea (08) families (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
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Radar graph of larvicidal plants and their families

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A significant portion of the study was devoted to evaluate larvicidal activity against various plant extracts only in the laboratory. In comparison, only a few studies have been conducted on the subject of fields of study, and a few plant-based products have found commercial success.

The difficulty in identifying potentially compounds, their inadequate characterization, and a lack of information in understanding the structure of active secondary metabolites responsible for mosquito larvicidal action are the key causes for plant-based pesticide failure.

The toxicity of insecticides is considered one of the most important environmental safety measures in mosquito control programs. Insecticides from plants are comparatively safe, low-cost, and readily available in many parts of the world.

Additional plant species should be tested to identify a wide number of plants that might potentially be positive in mosquito control to reduce resistance in mosquitos as shown with synthetic pesticides.

In the future, there will be a greater emphasis on the manufacture, research, and deployment of pesticides derived from natural materials, as well as the delivery of harmful substances derived from plants. For the development of insecticides, it is advised that a combination of chemicals with the same target-specificity be used.

To investigate the toxic effects of plants biochemical on nontarget species in simulated and small-scale field trials, researchers should investigate and expound on the method of action of isolated plant compounds, which is frequently missing from research publications. Bioactive molecules are considered the primary factor in larval mortality, and the major key active chemicals should be isolated and investigated in the future and advised that the plant key active compounds that have been combined and synthesized be commercialized.