Introduction

Firms today are increasingly aware of the importance of design and aesthetics in the enhancement of their competitive position and fulfillment of their marketing objectives (Schiuma 2011). Marketing managers productively employ and encourage innovative design in various domains, including advertising, products, websites, and retail stores. In retailing, architecture is one aspect of design that has particular relevance because the design of a store and its surrounding environment are critical to the attraction of customers and competing with online vendors. As Bonn et al. (2007) noted, retail design enhances brand meaning and perceptions of uniqueness in the minds of consumers, thus creating a competitive edge not easily imitated by competitors.

At the same time, retailing is undergoing a revolution with traditional brick and mortar stores facing unprecedented challenges. In particular, the rise of online commerce and the increasing convenience of shopping with digital devices have made some observers question the viability of traditional stores. In addition to online competitive threats, the 50 year reign of the enclosed shopping mall as the premiere shopping venue appears to be over. Malls have lost considerable appeal to consumers due to their overabundance and similarity, causing them to close at a rapid rate.

It is hard to argue against the efficiencies and convenience associated with online shopping. Internet retailers are able to cut costs in new ways and the convenience associated with online shopping and easy delivery is particularly appealing to today’s consumers. However, physical shopping environments have a unique capability to engage customers with enjoyable environments that affect all human senses, something that no online retailer can do. Despite dominating online commerce, Amazon recently acquired the Whole Foods premium grocery chain in order to provide a platform for well-designed physical retailing (Thompson 2017). Thus, we argue that traditional retailers should pay special attention to design in their shopping environment, both inside and outside their stores. Investing in superior design in the pursuit of rewarding shopping experiences and customer delight is critical to success in the current retail environment. In other words, traditional brick and mortar retailers hoping to survive must give adequate attention to the bricks and mortar themselves.

For many, shopping is an experience, not just the fulfillment of a need (Grewal et al. 2009). In creating a shopping experience, the atmosphere and design of a retail venue are key strategic domains (Puccinelli et al. 2009). By employing effective design, retail managers have the opportunity to shape experiences and create a pleasurable setting that attracts and retains customers. As Burke (2005) noted, “the environment should stimulate consumers’ senses with appealing sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch” (p.9).

The pursuit of experiential benefits may be an important contributor to the decline of enclosed shopping malls. Consumers are rejecting the staleness and artifice of enclosed malls and patronizing other destinations, such as outdoor malls and lifestyle centers (Bhatnagar 2005; Postrel 2006; Sherman 2008). These centers have an outdoor focus, providing landscaped grounds and diverse architectural designs that often evoke urban streets with multiple storefronts (Stumpf 2012). Outdoor architecture is also increasingly relevant for several other important retail categories. For example, shoppers approach big box stores such as Best Buy, Costco, Saturn, and Whole Foods directly from the outside, giving their exteriors considerable prominence (Bickers 2010). For small, boutique stores, exterior architecture is also critical as a way to compensate for the lack of brand recognition enjoyed by national retailers Mower et al. (2012). In this context, customers use architectural cues to form an impression of the store and its merchandise before deciding whether or not to enter.

Exterior architecture and settings contribute to store success in a number of ways. First, in competitive markets, distinctive architecture is one way to gain consumer attention and competitive advantage. Today, Sephora and Apple create international attention and media buzz through the distinctive architecture of their retail stores (Lortie 2015). For a new store, hoping to be noticed in a crowded marketplace, exterior design may represent an important strategic tool. Exterior architecture also provides a means of communicating or reinforcing brand image or other information to potential buyers (Reinartz and Kumar 1999). Businesses have long used their stores and corporate headquarters to create a desirable image for their brands. The Chrysler and Woolworth buildings in Manhattan were the epitome of modernity and the tallest buildings in the world when constructed in order to create a strong brand meaning. Early McDonalds incorporated huge golden arches as structural elements in their architecture in the pursuit of brand awareness and roadside visibility (Hess 1986). REI’s flagship store in Seattle does the same today (Ward 2014).

Although numerous studies have explored the impact of indoor atmospherics, few scholars have explored how exterior elements influence consumer responses. Among these few studies, the focus has been on only one exterior characteristic, window displays (e.g. Lange et al. 2016; Oh and Petrie 2012; Cornelius et al. 2010). Thus, our goal here is to provide a comprehensive framework and research foundation for the study of atmospherics outside the store (i.e. store exterior architecture and surrounding environment). We will explore several under-researched aspects of retail design strategy and guide researchers in positioning future studies. We want to stimulate thought on outdoor atmospherics by scholars, marketers, and architectural design professionals. As such, the following research objectives guide the development of our framework:

  1. 1.

    Provide a useful taxonomy of outdoor atmospheric elements relevant to store architecture and larger retail settings.

  2. 2.

    Examine psychological and behavioral responses to outdoor atmospherics among consumers.

  3. 3.

    Identify individual differences and situational variables as potential moderators of these responses

  4. 4.

    Discuss implications for retail management and city planners, followed by suggestions for future study

Theoretical background

For over 50 years, scholars from a variety of disciplines have studied the effects of environmental variables on human behavior. Table 1 provides a summary of research streams drawn from several disciplines that are relevant to the current study of outdoor atmospherics. Seminal work comes from the field of environmental psychology. Mehrabian and Russell (1974), developed the approach-avoidance model which has been widely used in studies pertaining to human interaction with the environment (Bitner 1992). According to this model, the effects of the physical environment on human behavior are mediated by consumer’s cognitive and affective responses. Based on the strength and valence of these responses, people decide whether to approach or avoid an environment (Velitchka and Weitz 2006).

Table 1 Summary of Research on Environmental Influences on Human Response
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In terms of cognition, previous research has shown that consumers use environmental features to make inferences about the character of a setting and the people who are located within it (Bitner 1992; Mowen et al. 2010; Nasar 1994). These cognitions help visitors form expectations as to what a setting will provide. Visitors also draw meaning from environmental features. For example, based on particular environmental features, a person may judge a setting to be upscale, natural, or unsafe. Cognitive perceptions also help people categorize a setting and differentiate it from others (Loken and Ward 1990).

Scholars have also found that settings elicit affective responses (Donovan and Rossiter 1982; Mehrabian and Russell 1974; Velitchka and Weitz 2006). These affective responses fall along two dimensions: pleasure and arousal. Researchers are able to position a setting within an emotional space made up of these two dimensions (Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Environments that produce feelings of pleasure will attract visitors. An arousing setting is also likely to be attractive unless the excitement level gets too high or is combined with unpleasantness (Donovan and Rossiter 1982; Bitner 1992). Unpleasant settings keep visitors away, particularly if they are also arousing.

These psychological responses are predictive of behavioral responses. Based on past research, behavioral responses to design fall on a continuum that is anchored by approach and avoidance (Bitner 1992; Donovan and Rossiter 1982; Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Approach behaviors capture a desire to get closer to a design, a desire to visit it and spend time exploring it. When setting characteristics elicit negative psychological responses, consumers avoid visiting that space or leave it more quickly.

As noted in Table 1, research over the years has investigated psychological and behavioral responses to color, setting complexity, typicality, imageability, and novelty. Allied research in art has come to similar conclusions. Urban planners have looked at the approach behavior of exploring a setting on foot (Nasar 1994; Ewing and Handy 2009; Southworth 2005). Architectural research has shown that particular building styles and layouts are strongly preferred and generate positive affect and approach behaviors (Herzog et al. 2013). In the field of forestry, settings within urban environments that have significant foliage have been found to elicit positive affect and approach behaviors (Sheets and Manzer 1991; Wolfe 2005a).

In marketing and retailing, setting effects have been explored under the concept of atmospherics which Kotler (1973) defined as “the effort to design buying environments to produce specific emotional effects in the buyer that enhance his purchase probability” (p. 50). Retailers employ overall design, materials, color, lighting, music, and scent to influence shoppers and gain competitive advantage (Turley and Milliman 2000; Eroglu and Machleit 2008). Because it is hard to gain an advantage based on price reductions or other promotional tactics, this has led retailers to use atmospherics as an important marketing tool.

In discussing the nature of atmospherics, Berman and Evans (1998) noted that store exteriors represent an important component. Retail firms spend large sums on real estate to secure an attractive setting and invest additional resources in store architecture. Several scholars have also argued that store exteriors and environmental variables create a key first impression and significantly influence consumers desire to visit and enter (Eroglu and Machleit 2008; Turley and Milliman 2000). Despite the obvious relevance of exterior design and setting, the marketing literature has essentially overlooked these variables. The few studies that have explored exterior design (see Table 1) have focused primarily on only one architectural element, store windows.

In the following section, we introduce a framework based on past research that is tailored to the study of outdoor atmospherics and their influence on consumers responses (see Fig. 1). The goal here is to facilitate future research by providing a more systematic approach to the study of outdoor atmospherics and illuminate the important stimuli derived from both retail settings and retail architecture. Following presentation of the framework and related propositions, several implications for retail management and promising avenues for future study are described.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Framework for the study of outdoor atmospherics and their impact

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Conceptual framework

Outdoor atmospherics

Outdoor atmospherics can be defined as the exterior characteristics of a retail space and its setting that influence customers’ desire to visit and provide patronage. In our framework, outdoor atmospherics are divided into two interrelated subcategories: store location and surroundings that capture the neighborhood or community surrounding a retail store and second, store architecture which includes those elements connected to the exterior design of the store (Berman and Evans 1998). These two categories are interconnected and the relative level of emphasis may vary based on retail objectives.

In some cases, the location may be of primary importance to the retail manager. That is, management wants to locate a store in a particular area, street, or shopping district. Neighborhood attractiveness may be based on traffic and sales expectations, aesthetics, or appeal to the target market. Based on this location preference, store design will follow and be subject to the constraints of the setting (Winter 2003). In other cases, management has a vision for a specific form of store architecture. In this case, the setting and location are chosen to fit the architectural needs of the individual store. For example, a flagship store will need to be sited so to allow the scale and impact desired by the firm (Nierobisch et al. 2017). Many retailers want to create an immersive brand environment (Foster and McLelland 2015; Napoli et al. 2014). Therefore, in designing a store, architects are charged with translating the brand image into the retail environment (Kozinets et al. 2002). Thus, store design may drive location choice. In addition to brand reinforcement, retailers may focus on differentiation and awareness creation. A desire for differentiation may lead to appropriate decisions in both store design and retail location (Foster and McLelland 2015).

As shown in the framework, retail and communication objectives such as brand building, sales volume, adherence to a theme, and awareness creation influence both store design and its siting within a larger shopping context. The relevant importance of these two atmospheric elements is also an outgrowth of retailers’ goals.

Location and surroundings

The first component of outdoor atmospherics is comprised of characteristics relating to the location and surroundings of a retail store. These characteristics include: neighborhood richness, walkability, foliage, enclosure, imageability, and ambience. In considering outdoor atmospherics, these are the broadest elements. Here the focus is on store location within a retail district and surrounding neighborhood. As noted above, a retailer’s desire to be located in a specific area may have considerable impact on the exterior design of the individual store. Retail architects may have to work around a number of geographic, construction, and regulatory constraints. Teller and Reutterer (2008) argued that although the marketing literature is replete with studies on shopping behavior in a specific store, empirical research on consumer shopping behavior in shopping streets and larger settings is scarce. De Nisco and Warnaby (2014) noted that the appeal of a shopping district is not only important for individual stores, but for urban revitalization projects as well. Characteristics comprising this aspect of outdoor atmospherics are discussed in the sections below.

Neighborhood richness

Here the focus is on the diversity and sensory stimulation of a neighborhood setting and its ability to stimulate customers’ senses and positively affect their shopping experience. Today’s consumers are attracted to shopping locations that offer a varied mix of businesses. Returning to the traditional urban model, there is an increasing appeal to shopping areas that offer a varied mix of businesses and are close to services, residences, tourist destinations, restaurants, and workplaces (Kaufman 2015; Wakefield and Baker 1998). Design complexity in a location also may vary and is determined by the number of buildings, their architectural diversity, range of colors, and landscape elements (Ewing and Handy 2009). High complexity shopping areas provide a wealth of engaging elements to keep consumers on site for longer periods. The architecture characterizing a shopping district can provide this complexity as do the people present in the space, signs, and lighting. Complexity is also connected to the information load of a setting (Malhotra 1982). People tend to have an optimal load or stimulation level with this sweet spot varying across individuals (Raju 1980). Too much or too little sensory stimulation can be aversive. Great shopping venues will provide an optimum blend for a target group of shoppers.

  1. P1a:

    The complexity and visual richness of a retail location has a curvilinear relationship with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. A moderate level of complexity tends to be preferred while extremes negatively affect consumer responses.

Walkability

The extent to which a shopping environment supports and encourages walking is an increasingly important characteristic. A walkable shopping area offers a significant proportion of its space reserved for pedestrians and successfully provides for their comfort and safety, it connects people with a range of destinations within a reasonable amount of time, and offers visual interest during the walk (Southworth 2005). Retailers, urban planners, environmentalists, and health care professionals all speak to the benefits of walkable settings. According to Southworth (2005), a walkable setting offers several important attributes, including linkage to mass transit, perceived safety, visual interest, high quality pathways, ease of crossing streets, a coherent network, and appealing landscape elements. Today, retail locations that offer walkable spaces are highly prized by shoppers (Blum 2006).

In the late nineteenth century, the Picturesque movement emphasized the aesthetic experience of walking in the design of new residential areas. These areas offered a rewarding landscape of both built and natural forms that engaged walkers and facilitated their movements (Southworth 2005). This approach to residential neighborhood design has enjoyed some resurgence. In New Urbanist developments, walkability and traditional architecture are emphasized (Audirac 1999). The appeal of walkability applies to retail settings equally well as it does to residential neighborhoods. Although walkability may have its greatest attraction for hedonic shoppers, it is also a welcome retail trait for purposeful shoppers where it mitigates parking and driving hassles.

  1. P1b:

    The walkability of a retail location is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. Shoppers prefer to shop in retail surrounding that are pedestrian friendly.

Foliage and trees

The presence of trees is another important aspect of outdoor retail surroundings. Wolfe (2005a) found that shoppers consistently preferred shopping districts with trees. Going further, shoppers judged products and stores more positively in settings with trees, and were willing to pay more for products sold in those retail environments. Other researchers have confirmed these findings (Chenoweth and Gobster 1990; Lohr et al. 2004; Sheets and Manzer 1991). Natural environments are inherently appealing, and some tree cover allows shade and sensory stimulation. With trees, shoppers rate the maintenance and visual quality of stores as being higher than in settings without trees, even in the absence of objective differences (Wolfe 2005a). The preference for foliage can be explained through an evolutionary interpretation (Kaplan 1987). We are inclined to prefer habitats that make our successful adaptation more likely. Trees and foliage are associated with perceptions of safety and resource availability. Foliage also provides welcome benefits of sun control and visual interest. As retailers and urban planners work to maintain healthy shopping districts, trees will play an important role.

  1. P1c:

    The presence of trees and natural foliage in a retail location is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. Shoppers prefer to shop in retail surrounding that offer tree cover and natural foliage.

Enclosure

The degree to which outdoor shopping areas are visually defined by buildings, walls, and other vertical elements contributes to perceptions of enclosure and a sense of safety (Amell et al. 2015). Feeling too exposed in a setting is thought to be aversive due to evolutionary reasons (Appleton 1996). Some spaces where vertical elements are related to the width of the space can provide a room-like feel to visitors. Alexander et al. (1977)) suggested that pleasing outdoor spaces, whether in lifestyle centers or urban streets, have a definite shape and the buildings become the walls of the “outdoor room”, the street and sidewalks represent the floor, and in some cases the sky reads as a ceiling. According to these authors, the total width of a street, from façade to façade, should not exceed building heights in order to maintain a comfortable feeling of enclosure. Other scholars have offered more lenient proportions of 1:2 or more (Jacobs 1993).

  1. P1d:

    A sense of enclosure in a retail location is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. Shoppers prefer to shop in retail settings where buildings create boundaries and a feeling of being in an enclosed outdoor space.

Imageability

Many of the characteristics noted above contribute to the overall imageability of a shopping environment. Amell et al. (2015) defined imageability as the quality of a place that makes it distinct, recognizable, and memorable. A shopping environment has high imageability when its physical elements and their arrangement capture attention, evoke affective responses, and create a lasting impression. When all the characteristics of a shopping environment work together to create a pleasing, memorable experience, there is positive imageability. Ewing and Handy (2009) posited that imageability is affected by a number of variables including: landscape features, the number of people present, the number of historic buildings, the presence of parks and courtyards, the availability of outdoor dining, and the preponderance of non-rectangular building shapes. In the pursuit of imageability, retailers must use some restraint to avoid cartoonish or overwrought settings.

  1. P1e:

    The extent to which a retail location is distinctive and memorable (i.e. high in imageability) is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. Shoppers prefer to shop in retail surroundings that have positive meaning.

Ambient factors

Baker and her colleagues (Baker et al. 2002) identified ambient factors as one component of atmospherics. In an interior setting, such factors would include lighting, music and background scents. The exterior of a shopping area also includes ambient factors that affect consumer appeal. Sounds coming from the bustle of crowds or music from outdoor street musicians may add excitement to a shopping area and attract customers. On the other hand, loud transit noises may have a negative effect. Comfortable lighting filtered through colorful awnings might be a positive feature while harsh sunlight would reduce the appeal of the setting. At night, appropriate lighting will have a strong place in outdoor atmospherics. On the Las Vegas Strip or in New York’s Times Square, nighttime lighting provides a substantial draw to locals and tourists alike. Scent is another ambient element that can be part of an outdoor shopping scene (Davies et al. 2003). Flowers and food vendors can beckon to consumers while fumes from buses may detract from the area’s appeal.

  1. P1f:

    The ambient conditions perceivable in a retail location influence consumer responses. These factors can have both a positive (pleasant music) and negative (traffic noise) impact on shoppers leading to both approach and avoidance responses.

Exterior store architecture

The second component of outdoor atmospherics is exterior store architecture which is comprised of characteristics relating to the building in which a store is housed. These characteristics include: building size/scale, architectural style, building age, building complexity, color, signage, windows/transparency, entrances, lighting, and immediate landscaping. At the store level, retail management may have considerable control over design decisions. In the context of the shopping center or multi-store building, retailers may yield much of their design control to developers and landlords. Each retailer will have to work within the design constraints imposed by the developer of the larger building space.

Store architecture includes a number of elements that together have an impact on customers and others in sensory range (Reinartz and Kumar 1999). These characteristics relate to the formal aesthetics of building and its basic structure (Nasar 1994). They also relate to symbolic aesthetics and the meaning that is delivered to observers through design. In some cases, store exterior is designed from a clean sheet of paper and in others it represents a modification of an existing structure or a part within a larger center. Architects make choices regarding size, scale, surface materials, color, entrances, display windows, exterior signage, and landscaping (Mower et al. 2012: Turley and Milliman 2000). These professionals also make choices regarding the overall style of the building and which design idiom it follows. The overall look of the store exterior must also take into account corporate identity issues and neighborhood fit.

Size and scale

The height and size of a building strongly influences its impact on people (Altman and Chemers 1980). Although small, intimate boutiques will continue to have appeal, consumers today seem particularly drawn to large stores due to perceptions of excitement, ample selection, and low prices, (Uberti 2014). Thus, it may also be beneficial for architects to create designs that make a store look bigger than it is. The advantages of size in the goal of impressing shoppers may have limits, however. Extremely large buildings can exceed what is termed human scale. This scale is connected to the size and proportions of people and coordinates with the speed at which people walk (Amell et al. 2015). With large stores, architects must skillfully design entrances and windows to prevent overwhelming visitors. Architecture that is large, monolithic, and ignores human scale is called brutalist architecture (Banham 2011).

  1. P2a:

    The perceived size and scale of a retail store is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. With the exception of extreme levels of size, shoppers prefer larger retail stores.

Architectural style, age and complexity

Architecture often may be categorized into a general style. Numerous styles exist including Mission Revival, Classical, Gothic, Mid-century Modern, Bauhaus, and Colonial, among many others. Each style provides meaning to visitors either through the design principles employed or through experience with similarly styled structures. Some studies report that popular styles are preferred over avant-garde styles (Stamps and Nasar 1997), whereas others find the reverse (Stamps 1993). Curved lines and ornateness have also been found to boost preferences (Frewald 1990; Gifford et al. 2000). The fit of a store’s architecture with other buildings in the area is another design characteristic of interest here. Having a distinctive design compared to neighboring stores may provide attention but detract from the harmony of the overall shopping area. Thus, distinctiveness of architectural style must be employed with some care.

In retailing, a common style variation is based on the perceived age of the building. A number of studies have demonstrated that older building styles are preferred over new styles (Herzog and Shier 2000). Reasons for this preference include greater height, visual richness, mystery, use of natural materials, and distinctiveness (Frewald 1990; Herzog and Shier 2000). More complex buildings also tend to be preferred, but the preference is stronger for older buildings.

  1. P2b:

    The architectural style, complexity, and age of a retail store influence psychological responses and approach behaviors. The relationship of responses to style, is complex and subject to individual differences.

Color

Color is central to design and affects the meaning that individuals draw from a stimulus (Labrecque et al. 2013). It also has the potential to affect mood and emotional states (Evans 2002). In a complex setting, color distinguishes structures and objects from their environment (Arnheim 1998). Color may attract, gain attention, and differentiate competitors. This variable is also important symbolically since color shapes the environment and influences perceptions of space, ambiance, and overall image (Kopec 2006). Color affects responses through past experiences and connections to nature, such as a gas station with a strong green color evoking sentiments about growing plants and environmental friendliness.

Retailing scholars have shown that color draws attention and that warmer tones are the most arousing (Bellizzi et al. 1983). Cooler colors tend to be more relaxing and produce less arousal (Labrecque et al. 2013). Also, people tend to be warm- or cool-color dominant, i.e., more sensitive to colors at the warm or cold end of the spectrum. Bellizzi and Hite (1992) studied the effect of warm and cool colors on consumer feelings and purchase likelihood. Based on an approach-avoidance scale, consumers seemed to prefer shopping in a cool setting, where they felt more comfortable and at ease.

  1. P2c:

    The colors of a retail exterior influence psychological responses and approach behaviors. The relationship of responses to color, is complex and subject to individual differences.

Signage and marquees

Signs have long been part of retail architecture. They can have both positive and negative effects on observers. If poorly designed and lacking in coherence, signs provide unwelcome visual pollution. If used effectively, signs may add charm to a setting and help guide movements (Nasar and Hong 1999). Kaplan (1987) argued that people prefer coherent settings that are easy to organize and understand. Signs are one way to provide such coherence, even for relatively complex settings. Theaters have always used their lighted marquees as a central element of their outdoor atmospherics. A century ago, stores painted their exterior brick walls with massive signs that are still visible in their faded patina today (Stage 1989). Signs are also critical to consumers’ ability to identify a retail store. For example, the historic department stores of Center City Philadelphia were located close together and offered similar architectural styles. It was exterior signage that directed shoppers to Wanamakers, Gimbel’s, or Snellenburg’s (Sullivan 2012). In some cases, signage may be so prominent that it affects overall store attractiveness.

  1. P2d

    The size, design, and prominence of a store’s signage influence psychological responses and approach behaviors. The relationship of responses to signage and marquees is complex and subject to individual differences.

Windows and transparency

As a consumer approaches a store, windows become increasingly important. They are critical in attracting visitors to a store and are one of the few outdoor atmospherics elements that have received significant study. Windows also affect architectural transparency which captures the degree to which people can see what lies beyond the edge of a building. Transparency also assists in creating coherence and legibility for a setting (Kaplan 1987). A window wall at ground level allows maximum transparency. Preferences for transparency stem from a desire to observe human activity beyond the edge of a building or street. A store with display windows that invite passers-by to look in, see around a corner, and then come in to shop offer high transparency. Blank walls and reflective glass reduce transparency. Salt Lake City building regulations require 60% transparent glass at the pedestrian level throughout the Central Business District because of the psychological comfort afforded by ground-level transparency (Amell et al. 2015).

Windows provide a key first impression about the retailer and its merchandise. Windows provide an interface between a store’s exterior and interior, allowing them to influence atmospherics in both domains. They also motivate approach by giving shoppers a preview of what they will find by entering (Klokis 1986; Lange et al. 2016; Sen et al. 2002). Window displays help profile a store and its offerings, especially to new customers (Berman and Evans 1998). Thus, window displays may be especially important design elements for small and independent retailers. According to Mower et al. (2012), successful window displays are aesthetically pleasing, contain a theme, use warm colors, draw customers into the scene with the use of perspective, use lighting to highlight key areas of the display, and incorporate accessories associated with the products. According to Sen et al. (2002) the influence of window displays will depend on consumer knowledge of the products displayed, the product category, and the shopping task (e.g. planned vs. unplanned). The aesthetic design of the window displays helps consumers judge store image and serves as an input to self-image matching. High self congruence should stimulate entry (O'Cass and Grace 2008).

  1. P2e:

    The proportion of the building that is transparent and window display quality are positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors.

Entrances

The entrance to a retail store may vary in its architectural prominence. Its size and style may influence the attractiveness of a store and its ability to attract shoppers (Bennett and Bennett 1970; Lynch 1972). Some entrances are relatively open with few barriers to entry and afford an unobstructed view (from the outside) of navigable paths inside the store. Other entrance designs have barriers in the form of counters, kiosks, revolving doors, columns, or displays. Although these barriers impede movement, they may signal the presence of useful information and excellent customer service. These differences reflect Lynch’s (1972) notion of legibility – the ease of understanding and navigating a space. The converse of legibility is mystery which, it should be noted, is not all bad (Kaplan 1987). Mystery has been associated with both pleasure and arousal as individuals navigate a space (Lynch 1960). Generally, individuals seek an optimum blend of the two. People prefer a generally legible space that has a bit of mystery to reduce the chances of becoming bored.

  1. P2f:

    The extent to which a store entrance suggests navigational ease and customer assistance is positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors.

  2. P2g:

    The extent to which a store entrance evokes customers’ feeling of mystery and curiosity has a curvilinear relationship with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors. A moderate level of mystery tends to be preferred while extremes negatively affect consumer responses.

Exterior lighting

Baker and her colleagues (Baker et al. 2002; Baker et al. 1992) have examined lighting as part of the ambient dimension of interior atmospherics. Light levels, directionality, and temperature may influence the comfort level for people in a space. In an exterior context, lighting has primary influence at night. Lights may be used to generally illuminate a store and affect perceptions of safety and ease of navigation (Johansson et al., 2011). Exterior lighting also may have an aesthetic function with lights creating a mood and means of attracting attention (Jakle 2001). Used effectively, a store may be considered more exciting or appealing after dark than it is in during daylight hours.

  1. P2h:

    The effectiveness and aesthetic quality of exterior store lighting are positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors.

Landscaping

Here we focus on the trees and greenery that are in close proximity to the retail building and are under the control of store or center management. Research has shown that landscaping affects emotional reactions and evaluations of urban settings (Sheets and Manzer 1991; Ulrich 1986; Wolfe 2005a; Wolfe 2009). Wolfe (2005b) found that consumers were more likely to patronize landscaped stores even when travel distances were longer. Chebat and Morrin (2007) found that people preferred to patronize stores that had prominent plants, flowers, and trees. Retail exteriors with landscaping are also expected to positively affect shoppers’ perceptions and store evaluations (Mower et al. 2012).

  1. P2i:

    The amount and aesthetic quality of exterior landscaping are positively associated with favorable psychological responses and approach behaviors.

Psychological responses to outdoor atmospherics

In line with past research shown in Table 1 and described earlier, we posit that both cognitive and affective responses derive from outdoor atmospherics.

Cognitive responses

Exterior architecture and retail surroundings help create beliefs about a retailer and its position in the marketplace. There is some disagreement as to whether cognitive responses to design are based on an overall Gestalt perception of a place or on separate processing of a set of design attributes (Durgee 1988). Given the complexity of outdoor atmospherics comprised of architectural elements pertaining to the store and center as well as large scale setting elements, atomistic processing would be quite demanding. It seems likely that shoppers would first make a global perception of outdoor atmospherics followed by an analysis of individual design features, especially among those individuals with higher design interests and skills (Bloch et al. 2003).

Outdoor atmospherics are also important in creating, reinforcing, and changing the image of a store and its brands. In a study of housing, exterior materials conveyed information about the homeowner’s style and social class to others (Sadalla and Sheets 1993). Architectural design and setting are often treated by management as a branding opportunity and a method of influencing an image among target consumers. Strong congruency among store exterior, interior, and brand image leads to easier processing, which in turn helps consumers to better understand and perceive a brand (Lee and Labroo 2004; Reber et al. 2004).

The concept of categorization also applies to the cognitive responses stemming from outdoor atmospherics (Bitner 1992; Loken and Ward 1990; Sujan 1985). Categorization is connected to symbolic aesthetics and represents the process by which people assign a label to a stimulus (Nasar 1994). When people see a bicycle with knobby tires and shocks, they classify that product as a mountain bike (Loken and Ward 1990; Mervis and Rosch 1981). Similarly, a particular configurations of design attributes will suggest a fast food restaurant, bank, or fashion boutique (Ward et al. 1992). In such situations, design elements serve as a mnemonic or shortcut device enabling customers to categorize and distinguish among types of offerings.

Existing categorization research indicates that preferences for incongruity are curvilinear; with moderate levels being most preferred (Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989; Radford and Bloch 2011). When incongruity is low, there is little motivation to engage in additional processing. When it is very high, the task of categorization becomes quite demanding. In order to hit this sweet spot, a new McDonalds may provide more refined exterior finishes, better landscaping, and provide a larger size than is typical in the fast food industry in order to communicate advantages over competitors. However, even these outlets will retain iconic design elements such as a drive-through window and golden arches to avoid confusing potential customers.

Affective responses

There are also affective responses where architectural and setting elements produce pleasure and arousal (Holbrook and Zirlin 1985; Veryzer 1993; Velitchka and Weitz 2006). One reason why outdoor shopping areas may evoke aesthetic responses and positive affect is their connection to nature. Many people seek out appealing outdoor landscapes for their residences or vacations. This appeal is also expected to apply to shopping choices. Urban streets and outdoor centers offer views of the sky and more connection to the weather (Altman and Chemers 1980). The presence of trees and foliage in a shopping setting may have particular strength in creating positive emotions. A number of researchers have found that urban trees stimulate positive emotions among observers (Lohr et al. 2004; Chenoweth and Gobster 1990).

Outdoor atmospherics are more likely to elicit positive affect when both utilitarian and hedonic shopping motives are accommodated. Utilitarian shopping is task-related, and rational (Batra and Ahtola 1991; Sherry 1990). Where outdoor atmospherics allow the goals of a shopping trip to be achieved in an efficient manner, a shopper may feel quite pleased with the retail experience. Hedonic shopping is more playful and is based on the entertainment and exploratory benefits provided during a shopping trip (Babin et al. 1994; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). It is expected that outdoor atmospherics may play a role in determining hedonic value and associated positive emotions. Where both utilitarian and hedonic value are both activated by a store’s architecture and setting, the resulting affective responses should be quite high.

In some cases, outdoor atmospherics can lead to negative emotions. Consumer affect may be negative when a store’s setting appears unsafe, cold, noisy, or poorly maintained. One reason enclosed malls rose in prominence was to limit the occurrence of these negative responses. The consistent, weather-independent world of the enclosed mall removed many downside risks. One might argue that in pursuing the elimination of risk, positive emotions were also tamped down. Many shoppers seek greater hedonic value, uniqueness, and authenticity and are willing to take on more risk relating to atmospheric variables (Babin et al. 1994). In general, the goal of retailers is to elicit more positive than negative responses among consumers. Managers need to be mindful that outdoor atmospherics are multidimensional and that affective responses can relate to individual atmospheric elements as well as to the overall retail setting.

The various cognitive and affective responses taken together will have an effect on store image and the image of the retail setting. Store image is critical to patronage because buyers engage in a matching process with their self-images. When there is high congruence between store image and self-image, a consumer is more likely to favor a given retailer (Sirgy et al. 2000). As visitors approach a shopping center or store, outdoor atmospherics help create an image before the shopper ever goes inside. The impact of outdoor atmospherics on store image will be particularly salient in the case of new or unfamiliar retail businesses where image has yet to be created. The exterior of the store helps determine whether the passerby will enter and gain additional image related information.

Behavioral responses

As shown in the Fig. 1, psychological responses lead to behavioral responses that may be categorized as approach or avoidance. The most important approach response to outdoor atmospherics is entry to the store. If a store’s exterior has enough appeal to convert passersby into store visitors, that represents a success.

In studying the determinants of retail attractiveness, Teller and Reutterer (2008) identified three dimensions that capture approach reactions: overall attractiveness reflecting the appeal of the entire retail complex, sustainable attractiveness reflecting customers’ tendencies to revisit a complex, and situational attractiveness reflecting the degree to which customers spend time in a retail complex. Their results showed that atmosphere had a positive, direct and significant effect on overall attractiveness and situational attractiveness, and an indirect positive and significant influence on sustainable attractiveness.

Other approach responses include enhanced store loyalty. Superior outdoor atmospherics may lead consumers to repeatedly choose a particular shopping venue over competitors. Sports marketers indicate that in cases where fans love a stadium’s atmospherics, they become frequent ticket buyers and are less sensitive to poor team performance (Hightower et al. 2002; Wakefield and Sloan 1995; Wakefield et al. 1996). Another approach response is positive word of mouth about the shopping venue. When a consumer finds the outdoor atmospherics of a retail area to be distinctive and attractive, consumers want to share their find with others (Babin and Attaway 2000; Bloemer and Odekerken-Schroder 2002).

When outdoor atmospherics evoke negative psychological responses, consumers avoid visiting a retail location (Bitner 1992; Donovan and Rossiter 1982; Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Time and money spent in the setting will be minimized with little discretionary exploration. Again, word of mouth activity may occur, but in this case it will be negative. Consumer avoidance behaviors motivate retailers to consider changes in their outdoor atmospherics or a move to a new venue. The decline of enclosed shopping malls can be considered as the culmination of long term avoidance responses (Peterson 2015). Shoppers are avoiding stores and centers that fail to provide the atmospheric benefits available at competing outdoor venues.

Individual differences as moderators of responses

The effect of outdoor atmospherics on psychological responses is not expected to be consistent among customers. Bloch et al. (2003) looked at differences in product design centrality and found that people differ in design skills and their appreciation for design. Vieira (2010) applied the design centrality construct and measurement approach to retail stores with similar results. For purposes here, we consider design centrality to serve as a moderating individual difference in our framework. That is, the exterior design of a store will generate stronger responses among persons who care more about aesthetics and have more developed design skills. Individual differences that moderate the effect of outdoor atmospherics on psychological responses include: design centrality, processing style, shopping objectives, and personality.

Design centrality and acumen

Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson (1990) argued that design acumen is an individual difference trait. Individuals with greater design skills or acumen more readily appraise designs and hold more sophisticated design preferences. Reber et al. (2004) argued that aesthetic pleasure depends on the perceiver’s fluency in processing design cues. Thus, people characterized by high design centrality should use store aesthetics as an important choice criterion and tend to have more skill in the evaluation of design. These authors also suggested that design centrality moderates the level of response to both good and bad designs.

Individuals also may differ in design-related experience. With more exposure to architecture of high quality and diversity, consumers may develop a more sophisticated eye to evaluate store exteriors (Osborne 1986; Vieira 2010). More experienced consumers can better judge the architectural excellence of a retail establishment. Retailers developing the outdoor atmospherics for a store or center need to consider the level of design centrality and skill found among their target segment. One can argue that it is wasteful to allocate significant design-related resources to the pursuit of a low design centrality segment (Bloch et al. 2003). In today’s market, this dictum does not seem to be followed, however. Stores, restaurants, and theme parks create outdoor atmospherics of incredible quality while targeting a broad market that is likely made up of a relatively small percentage of design focused shoppers. The assumption here is that everyone will appreciate the aesthetics offered, some more than others.

Processing style

Several authors (Childers et al. 1985; Holbrook et al. 1984) have found that people also vary in their predominant processing style. Some people may be labeled verbal processors while others favor visual processing. Holbrook (1987) found that aesthetic judgments differed across respondents representing the two forms of processing. Visualizing consumers may have stronger approach responses to outdoor atmospherics because they more closely attend to visual design elements than do consumers who favor verbal processing.

  1. P3a:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and psychological responses is moderated by consumers’ level of design centrality, acumen and processing style. Responses will be stronger among shoppers who consider design more central and have a more discerning eye for design.

Shopping objectives

Another individual moderator of responses to outdoor atmospherics are shopping objectives. A more defined and ambitious shopping agenda may lead to reduced attention to store architecture. This situation follows the central vs. peripheral processing dichotomy introduced by Petty and his colleagues (Petty et al. 1983). Under their theory, a goal-directed, high involvement shopper focuses on the purchase task (central route) and will be less concerned with peripheral cues such as the store’s architecture and surroundings. Hedonic shoppers with ample time, focus on the pleasure of the activity and are expected to pay greater attention to peripheral cues such as outdoor atmospherics. Even if goal-directed shoppers attend to outdoor atmospherics, they may prefer design elements that are useful to getting their tasks accomplished efficiently rather than pleasing their aesthetic tastes.

  1. P3b:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and psychological responses is moderated by shopping objectives. Purposeful, goal-directed shoppers will have milder or different preferences relating to outdoor atmospherics than do hedonic shoppers.

Personality

McKechnie (1974) described a number of personality traits that influence responses to a spatial environment and are relevant to the study of outdoor atmospherics. Variations in these traits are expected to moderate consumer responses to exterior atmospherics. Pastoralism is a tendency toward environmental conservation and a preference for open, natural surroundings. Urbanism, on the other hand, represents the opposite of pastoralism and refers to the enjoyment of crowded, fast-paced settings typical of city life. Stimulus Seeking is characterized by a wide range of interests and the enjoyment of physical sensations, travel, and exploration. Environmental Trust is a trait connected to a general trust of the environment, tempered with a fear of being alone and vulnerable. Antiquarianism is associated with an affinity for old places and old things. Need for Privacy refers to an enjoyment of seclusion and freedom from disturbance. Mechanical Orientation refers to people who are interested in working with science and technology (McKechnie 1974).

The mix of these traits present in a given consumer may influence psychological responses to a particular outdoor shopping setting. Where there is a clear match between a consumer’s mix of these traits and the nature of the outdoor atmospherics, psychological responses should be positive and lead to approach behaviors. For example, a consumer who manifests a high level of pastoralism may be particularly positive about outdoor shopping venues offering foliage and open spaces to sit. A stimulus seeking individual on the other hand may be drawn to shopping areas noted for their bright lights, strong ambient sounds, and crowds.

  1. P3c:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and psychological responses is moderated by personality traits. Traits that are more congruent with outdoor atmospherics will elevate response levels to outdoor atmospherics.

Experience

Consumers also may differ in terms of their experience and loyalty to a store and its constituent brands. A shopper who has a clear image regarding the store interior and anticipated transaction may display more modest reactions to exterior cues. In other words, consumers make inferences from their experiences with other stores, store interiors, and related brand information (Dacin and Smith 1994; Simonin and Ruth 1998). Tourists and first time visitors may be strongly influenced by outdoor atmospherics given they have little else to guide them as they make a choice of outlet. Thus, to predict response from consumers based on exterior atmospherics, it is necessary to know their past history with the store and area in question.

  1. P3d:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and psychological responses is moderated by store familiarity and experience. When familiarity is low, responses to outdoor atmospherics will be elevated due to the lack of other information.

Situational factors

As shown in the framework, several situational variables moderate both psychological and behavioral responses normally obtained from a package of outdoor atmospherics. Moderating situational variables include: weather, crowding, and competing retail experience.

Weather

One factor that is clearly relevant to outdoor atmospherics is weather. Enclosed malls were developed with the goal of eliminating variation in this factor. Surprisingly, the variation and connection to nature, once thought to be a negative, is today an asset of outdoor shopping venues. Even in cities with relatively harsh weather, such as Phoenix, outdoor shopping centers are replacing enclosed malls (Postrel 2006). Just as baseball fans prefer real grass and outdoor stadiums, there appears to be something similar in play for shoppers desiring a return to the authenticity of outdoor shopping (Rosensweig 2005). Nevertheless, it is expected that shopper traffic and the appeal of outdoor shopping venues will vary according to the weather. Bitter cold, intense heat, or rain are still expected to reduce the positive responses to outdoor shopping areas in comparison with enclosed alternatives.

  1. P4a:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and consumer responses is moderated by weather. Weather harshness is inversely related to the positivity of consumer responses and approach behaviors.

Crowding and social surroundings

Responses to outdoor atmospherics also may be moderated by the number of people present in the outdoor setting. Belk (1975) addressed the concept of social surroundings, or the persons who are present in a setting. This component of Belk’s situational taxonomy is echoed in Baker’s social dimension of atmospherics (Baker et al. 1988). Reactions to crowds in retail locations may vary according to the purpose of the shopping trip and the nature of the individual shopper. Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980) argued that consumers with a strong task orientation are bothered by crowds, whereas recreational shoppers are not. More recently, Baker and Wakefield (2012) found that task shoppers perceive social density as stressful crowding while social shoppers consider the same level of density to be positive. For all types of shopping objectives, individuals differ in the optimal level of crowding. In some cases, too little crowding can become a negative situational moderator. For example, if a shopping venue is sparsely occupied, it may reduce assessments of trendiness or safety.

  1. P4b:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and consumer responses is moderated by social surroundings. The nature of this moderation is likely to be dependent on visit purpose and individual differences. Crowds are more likely to be a positive moderator for hedonic shoppers and a negative moderator for purposeful shoppers.

Exposure to competitive retail locations

Responses to outdoor atmospherics also may be moderated by recent exposure to other shopping areas. For example, cosmopolitan consumers who have recently visited world class shopping streets may be less impressed with their hometown retail options than are other shoppers (Radice 2009). Even in the same metro area, the presence of a retail setting with superior outdoor atmospherics may depress the positivity of responses to rival centers. The consumer satisfaction literature has long argued that expectations determine satisfaction (Oliver 1981). Therefore, exposure to particularly attractive outdoor atmospherics may elevate expectations regarding retail design, at least for a time, making more common stores appear worse in comparison. In a similar vein, Richins (1991) found that exposure to idealized images of beauty in the media elevated comparison standards and reduced appraisals of peer attractiveness. In our context, exposure to excellent architectural examples may similarly affect comparison points and depress evaluations of stores offering moderate design quality.

  1. P4c:

    The relationship between outdoor atmospherics and consumer responses is moderated by competitive retail experience. Past exposure to other retailers with superior outdoor atmospherics will reduce the positive response to new shopping environment due to comparative evaluation.

Discussion

Architectural design has always been critical in drawing people to locations of all kinds. Craftsmen and their patrons spent decades building awe-inspiring temples, tombs, and cathedrals that still attract crowds, centuries after their construction. Superior architecture has also drawn consumers to shopping areas for millennia as in the case of Trajan’s Markets in Rome, and more recently, the Montmartre district in Paris, the Ginza in Tokyo, and Rodeo Drive in Southern California. Today’s marketing landscape is no different as retailers try to create appealing store designs in order to maintain shopper traffic in the wake of increased Internet shopping and the decline of enclosed malls.

Outdoor atmospherics are critical in today’s retail landscape that increasingly favors stores and centers that are approached from the exterior. The outside appearance of a store provides a critical first impression and generates inferences regarding service level, price, and available merchandise (Lange et al. 2016). For a number of retail chains, exterior store design has become part of larger brand focused design vocabulary (Foster and McLelland 2015). For example, all Bass Pro Shops follow a similar architectural theme designed to resemble heavily timbered lodges such as those found in Yellowstone National Park. This architectural idiom reinforces their brand identity as a premier outdoor supplier for hunting, fishing, and boating enthusiasts. Retail exteriors and their settings are also important as they contribute to the revitalization of urban shopping venues. Today, many shoppers are seeking the authenticity of urban shopping that offers classic architecture, an appealing patina of age, and an exciting diversity of store types (Kaufman 2015). Shoppers are attracted to districts that combine aesthetics from the past with twenty-first century store concepts. Given this movement away from enclosed malls and towards outdoor centers and urban shopping streets. It is surprising, after 40 years of work on retail atmospherics, there has been very little attention given to stimuli existing outside the store. The goal here has been to call needed attention to the subject of outdoor atmospherics and to provide a framework for future study.

This framework and discussion provided here was intended to be relevant to a variety of publics, including retail managers, developers and shopping districts developers, urban planners, community leaders, and retail consumers. As we noted earlier, the outdoor atmospherics can be determined by or reflect the interests of these different stakeholders. Retail managers might not have as much influence as they wish in designing the exterior of their stores. Developers might have already determined the main elements of design and exterior architecture of the stores. We are not suggesting that different entities have equal power or say in outdoor atmospherics. Rather, we are putting forward a framework that we believe contributes to future research and better application of different design and setting elements. Ideally, developers, retailers, city planners and other stakeholders will work together with the goal of maximizing the benefits for everybody including consumers. We believe that our framework can guide future research and practice in retailing in regards to understanding the relative importance of outdoor factors that have too long been ignored in academic settings.

Managerial implications

Retail managers devote considerable resources to the determination of prime retail locations. Typically, these location decisions are determined by variables such as traffic patterns, transportation accessibility, and the price of real estate (Hernandez and Bennison 2000). In addition to these factors, retailers should also consider connections to outdoor atmospherics. As noted above, there are many setting or environmental factors that help to create an attractive retail location. Managers should consider factors such as the visual richness of the shopping area, the proximity of eating places, walkability, and the presence of foliage in making the most effective location decisions. Drezner (1994) modeled retail location effects and argued that customers choose a retail complex that is more attractive over a less attractive but closer alternative as long as the distance differential (attractiveness differential converted to distance) is not greater than the difference in physical distance between the facilities. The quality and diversity of the architecture of other stores in the area should also be considered.

Considering outdoor atmospherics also provides chain retailers with an explanation for variable sales performance across individual outlets. Stores selling the same merchandise at the same price may vary in performance based on the drawing power of store architecture and setting. Brocato et al. (2015) examined place attachment in the context of loyalty to service firms. They noted that place attachment is location specific and that physical environment quality affects the strength of attachment. Thus, outdoor atmospherics may prove useful in explaining differential attachment and patronage across retail locations. Given the strong connections today between product and retail brands, outdoor atmospherics also may enhance brand images among target segments. Where brand image, product designs, graphic design, and atmospherics, both inside and out, are congruent, one would expect many brand building benefits to the firm.

Appealing outdoor atmospherics also help retailers attract and retain staff. Workplace quality of life has long been shown to influence employee morale and productivity (Ulrich 1991). A store located in an attractive neighborhood with ample nearby dining options and pleasant walkways may make staff lunch hours especially pleasant and enhance retention. Appealing exterior architecture and surroundings also may increase the pride of the staff.

Public policy and urban planning implications

Store architecture is also significant in a larger sense because it affects the appearance and quality of our cities and communities (Lew 1989). Retail establishments and shopping districts can enhance or detract from the beauty of a city or area. Such effects can influence population patterns, business relocation decisions, tourism revenue, and traffic density. Retail buildings are often large, prominent, and have a long lifespan. Therefore, the quality of store architecture can affect the aesthetics of a community for many years. The stores on 5th Avenue in New York, built decades ago, continue to bring pleasure to both residents and tourists alike. Efforts to create retail spaces that are attractive and thoughtfully designed will benefit people whether or not they are shoppers at the store. If several retailers commission visually appealing architecture or repurpose existing buildings, this combined effort can help make a city become more vibrant and attractive. Retail commerce adds life to central cities, attracts visitors, and drives out crime and decay. Great shopping districts bring millions of tourist dollars and numerous jobs to a community (Jansen-Verbeke 1998). If a shopping area is highly walkable, it also may contribute to reductions in vehicle emissions and benefit air quality. Thus, outdoor atmospherics are salient to public officials, tourism boards, and transportation services as well as to firm management.

Future research

The framework and discussion presented here explore a number of elements thought be important components of outdoor atmospherics and their possible impact on consumer responses. There are several avenues for future research that appear worthwhile. One could explore the differential emphasis on exterior atmospherics across retail categories. That is, it may be useful to determine which retail sectors spend more on architecture and which receive more benefit from this spending. This line of research could explore retail differences based on merchandise sold, market share, newness to the market and innovativeness. Among stores in the same category, difference in commitment to outdoor atmospherics could be examined in relation to sales and market share.

Future research also could take different combinations of the atmospheric elements presented in the model to create experimental stimuli. These stimuli could be relatively simple two dimensional renderings that systematically vary atmospheric attributes or they could be created within a 3D virtual reality setup (McCreery et al. 2013). A conjoint approach could then be used to explore preferences among different combinations of atmospheric elements (Green and Srinivasan 1978). This analysis would culminate in weights being assigned to the varying elements, thus assisting retailers in their future design projects. Variations in derived weight can be compared across different consumer groups, retail categories, and purchase objectives. Research in this domain could also seek to identify which specific consumer responses are most affected by outdoor atmospherics. That is, it would be useful to know which particular cognitions or appraisals are most elastic to changes in architecture or setting.

Further exploration of differences in response between established urban retail streets and new centers designed to provide similar design cues also might be useful. Grayson and Martinec (2004) discussed the role of authenticity in consumer behavior. Here, one might explore the impact of authenticity in retail settings. Two types of authenticity were described. Indexical authenticity comes from a factual link to some desired attribute. Thus, a store housed in an old building for many years, nested within a historical shopping district would be viewed as having high indexical authenticity. Iconic authenticity is based on design cues that closely represent the desired characteristic. Among outdoor centers, the design that appear more authentic and evocative of the past may be more preferred. Visitors to Plimoth Plantation in Massachusetts encounter a detailed replica of seventeenth Century colonial America. Meticulous research has guided the construction of new buildings that mimic the ones lost over time. The shops on Disneyland’s Main Street have iconic authenticity in that they reproduce 1890’s stores and eating establishments. Brocato et al. (2015) found that nostalgia helped fuel place attachment. In the context of outdoor atmospherics, further research on designs that evoke the past or nostalgic meanings among shoppers would be another research avenue. Research could determine the value consumers attach to the two types of authenticity. In other words, is looking like a classic venue shopping good enough, or do people crave the real thing?

Congruence or fit issues may provide another promising avenue of research. Given outdoor atmospherics include both store architecture and the larger setting around the store, one might investigate response differences due to variations in fit between these elements. For example, would a modern store located within an older historical part of a city produce different responses than would an older looking store. In addition, one might examine the deign fit between the store exterior and interior. If a shopper believes the store outside and inside are not a good match, are approach responses reduced?

In considering place attachment, Brocato et al. (2015) found that location distinctiveness was an important predictor. Therefore, it might be useful to separate the quality and distinctiveness of outdoor atmospherics. In other words, we might want to learn the importance of being different from the majority of retail competitors. The sameness of shopping mall architecture and tenant mix may be a key contributor to their decline. Perhaps the appeal of outdoor shopping venues is partially due to being “not a shopping mall.” If outdoor retail settings become more common, the advantage of an individual location may rest on additional elements of differentiation.

The role of individual differences also might be a useful area of research activity. In particular, looking at age segments could help uncover if the decline in malls and rise of outdoor shopping is a result of a generational change or are tastes shifting across consumers of all ages. Varying design skills across shoppers could be examined using the design centrality scale or one developed specifically to address retail design issues (Bloch et al. 2003; Vieira 2010). The matching of atmospherics to consumer self-image is another individual difference with potential promise. The architecture of a store may be appraised differently based on its fit with the self-perceptions of various shopper segments.

The dearth of research on outdoor atmospherics is not new but is increasingly a problem given the current retail environment. Modern retailing is undergoing a significant upheaval based on the rise of online commerce and society’s acceptance of mobile devices. Enclosed shopping malls, once a bulwark of retail activity, appear to be in significant decline. Thus, only those shopping venues that offer distinctive appeal to consumers will survive. We believe that outdoor atmospherics are critical to creating this appeal. It is hoped that the attention to the topic provided here will provide a stimulus and lead to a reduction in this research shortfall.