1 Introduction

The coast near Rome, south of the mouth of the Tiber, from Ostia to Antium (Anzio) has been inhabited since historical times. The town of Laurentum was first mentioned by Polybius in the fourth century BC. Through this area—from the harbour of Ostia down to Terracina—a road ran along the coast, which was used to reach the numerous villas by the Roman aristocracy, who had them built as holiday residences along the coast. Among them was the Villa of Pliny the Younger, excavated by Lanciani (1901).

At the time of the Roman Empire, there were several villas between the road and the coast, one of them is attributed to Pliny the Younger. This villa is located in the area presently indicated as Castelfusano, at the north-western boundary of the Tenuta di Castelporziano. Nevertheless, the identification of this archaeological area with Pliny’s Villa has not yet been proven with certainty. Later the coastal trail was called “Via Severiana” (built under Septimius Severus between 198 and 209 AD), connecting the different parts of the previously existing road from Terracina to the harbour of Ostia, so that one could reach Pliny’s Villa either leaving the Via Laurentina at the 14th mile or leaving Via Ostiense at mile 11 (1 Roman mile = 1,848 m).

With these exact indications Pliny starts one of his letters (book II, epistle 17) written to his friend Gallus, describing with surprising precision the environmental conditions, during Roman times, of the area which is nowadays the Tenuta of Castelporziano.

The name Laurentum refers to the coastal area of Latium from the mouth of the Tiber near Ostia to the southern border of the territory at Anzio. The etymology derives from the laurel woodlands which date back to a mythical King Pico when he wanted to build the town which later hosted Aeneas. A laurel forest with gigantic trees is also recorded by Virgil (Aeneid), book XI, p. 133 and p. 143).

2 Pliny the Younger (61–114 AD)

Pliny the Younger, born as Gaius Caecilius (around 61 AD), was son of Lucius Caecilius in a rich family of the Equestrian Order flourishing near Como in the Gallia Cisalpina (presently Lombardy). As he lost his father while he was still very young, he was adopted by his mother’s brother, Pliny the Second, the famous historian and naturalist, later known as Pliny the Elder and consequently the first, by the name of Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, was later called Pliny the Younger, in order to distinguish him from his famous uncle. He studied as a scholar of the celebrated Quintilianus School in Rome to become a lawyer and began his carrier together with his friend Tacitus, the famous historian. Under Emperor Trajan (98–117 AD) he was Superintendent of Treasury, later temporary Consul and afterwards Curator of the Tiber Waters, then one of the Magistrates of the Imperial Treasuries (Finances). Finally he became Governor of the Bithynia et Pontus province (north-eastern part of present-day Turkey) where he died, probably in 114 AD.

He had a brilliant carrier and influential friends, while his wealthy family provided him with a well-to-do life and villas and houses in several parts of Italy, each one of them was destined for a precise period of the year, also according to his commitments. The winter–spring season, full of activities connected with his charges in Rome, was spent in the villa on the Laurentina. More precisely, the time spent in this villa was devoted to relaxation and meditation, that is to say to otium (meant as holiday time for high-ranking Romans, a time free of public engagements [negotium], to be spent in the countryside with intellectual activities).

The villa could be easily reached from the urban centre in one day as it was favourably located along the coast, about 17 miles south of Rome. In his letter (book I, letter 9) from year 97 to Minutius Fundanus, he writes that at the time he is in his residence at Laurentum, reading or writing something, alternating these activities with (physical) relaxing (body care) with nobody to disturb his solitude, just talking to himself and to his books. Pliny describes how refreshing this was, how honourable and noble, more than any other activity and therefore he suggests to his friend to abandon the City and devote his time to noble and undisturbed relax. Later he exclaims: “Oh sea, oh coasts, true sanctuaries of the Muses!” in describing that the Villa was destined to retirement in solitude, without excess, a sort of a rustic house, a cottage, imitating the Greek temenos.

3 Pliny’s villa in Laurentum and its literary reconstruction

The letter in which Pliny describes the Villa of Laurentum is attributed to the year 105 AD, but hints about this villa can be found already in some previous letters.

In letter 7 (book I), written to his friend Octavius Rufus in September 97, Pliny thanks for the “dates” received from him (which can be interpreted as “figs”). Figs were growing around the Villa Laurentina, as we shall see, as well as for the mushrooms, saying that he intends to be back in Rome by October 15, mentioning Gallus. He states once more that the Villa is meant for relaxation also in the letter 22 (book I) to Catilius Severus, still in the year 97, saying he was in Rome at that time, but if he could leave behind him all issues worrying him, he would go back to his house in Laurentum, back to his books and his writing table.

In his letter to Pontius (book VII, letter 4) he mentions a book he is keeping in his Villa Laurentina in which Asinius Gallus is comparing his own father to Marcus Tullius Cicero. Finally, a brief hint to the season regarding his villa can be found in the letter written to his friend Fuscus (Pedanius Fuscus Salinator), (book IX, letter 40): “……in Laurentino hieme permutem”. One can hypothesize that in his letters referring to his villas and gardens, Pliny the Younger was influenced by the Silvae of Publius Papinius Statius (45–96 ca.) written during the years 89–96 (the first 3 books were published in 93). Nibby (1819, II: 33) wrote “The ancient coast Laurentina where Pliny the Younger had his beautiful villa known with the name Laurentinum Plinii.” Indeed, the most accurate description of the environment around the Villa is in letter 17.

4 Historical introduction to the text of letter 17

Pliny the Younger’s letter to his friend Gallus, indicated as epistle 17 of book II, is one of the 375 known which were written by him to 105 friends and colleagues between the years 96–97 and 108–109. The addressee of Pliny’s letter is indicated as “Gallus” (perhaps Clusinius Gallus, letter 17, book IV, at the beginning of the year 105, and probably corresponds to “Gallus”, addressee of letter 20, book VIII) in which he also describes his Villa Laurentina.

The letters were published in Epistulae in 9 volumes over several years and with methods still unclear, in the period 100–109. A 10th volume was added later which contains the correspondence with Roman Emperor Trajan. In his way of writing Pliny the Younger, a sort of literary genius, was evidently influenced by the works of Cicero and Cato.

The original correspondence has not been preserved. What has reached us, after two millennia, is the transcription of copies, and copies of copies, from a mutilated archetype. For over thousand years the letters did not awaken particular interest but were copied in the scriptoria of monasteries with scarce specific knowledge of architecture, deficiencies which lead to some incorrect interpretations and clearly determined some changes from the original text.

Specific descriptions of the environment surrounding the villa in this letter are present only in three particular segments: at the very beginning and in items 14 and 25. Following, are the original Latin text (in a more modern transcription by Pievano and Longhi 1901), and the modern English translation (from http://www.gutenberg.org 2013).

5 Conclusive remarks

The landscape system described by Pliny the Younger is a sandy coast, the shore of a not very prolific sea, where the rich owner can go for a swim and fishers catch delicious sea food. Proceeding towards the interior, the evergreen vegetation is dominant, sometimes reduced to a maquis surrounding the villas, and, even in the vicinity of the sea, there are ponds with pure freshwater (still existing, today called piscine, a focal point of biodiversity). The villas are surrounded by fertile gardens and orchards, and, more in the interior, large areas are reduced to pastures, offering a bucolic vision of grazing cattle and, during the fresh season, flocks of sheep transferred there from the mountains.

During the following decadence of the Empire the villas where abandoned, constructions collapsed and were covered by sand, the population migrated to towns because of malaria, and probably the natural vegetation expanded over the whole region.

During the Middle Ages, human settlements were reduced and mediterranean and submediterranean forests invaded most of the Castelporziano area: this condition is still documented in the very first modern maps dating back to the sixteenth century. The ruins not covered by sand became a new substrate for a special type of rupestrian vegetation, specialized on man-made substrates, where species adapted to the human habitat expanded: Cymbalaria muralis and Parietaria judaica on the walls (Pignatti et al. 1993; Caneva et al. 1995; Lucchese and Pignatti 2009). Along the old trails, on the pavements, a similar synanthropic vegetation developed, with Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Polygonum arenastrum, Sagina apetala and others, sometimes preserving alien species probably introduced in the gardens during the Roman period (Pignatti and Giomi Visentin 1989). But in general, evergreen or deciduous oak forests were completely covering the ruins, which now are carefully excavated by archaeologists (Pignatti and Pignatti 1993, 1995; Pignatti et al. 1993).

In the seventeenth century the first scientific survey along the coast describing the Laurentum site was carried out (Lancisi 1714); particular attention was paid to coastal vegetation, and the turnover of tall grasses (Agropyrum junceum, Ammophila arenaria) depending on wind: in this occasion the concept of ecological succession was mentioned for the first time (Pignatti and Ubrizsy Savoia 1989), this is how Pliny’s Villa enters in the history of the earliest development of environmental science.

All the species recorded (laurel, boxwood, walnut, fig, vine) are still present in the area and the passage of transhumant sheep flocks was kept up until a few decades ago. A particular problem is the presence of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens): this evergreen shrub is present as a wild growing element in Latium but not recorded for Castelporziano; in general the trunk of Buxus can reach one meter or two in particularly developed plants, only very rarely Buxus can grow as a treelet up to 3–4 m. Pliny describes well developed “buxus” plants with arboreal growth. It is evident that he must have been referring to a different plant: we would suggest Quercus ilex. This oak is present with majestic centenary trees in Castelporziano, its leaves are evergreen-sclerophyllous and possibly Pliny considered them similar to boxwood leaves; this would also correspond to Pliny’s observation that this tree is sensitive to the salinity of marine aerosol and after its decay, it is substituted by evergreen shrubs, e.g. Rosmarinus.

Among the tree species mentioned, oaks and pines, which are the most frequent ones today, are missing in the description given by Pliny the Younger. Indeed, the constant presence of oaks in the whole coastal area of Latium is well-documented by palynological records. Regarding pine trees, it can be presumed that they really were less abundant in ancient times. Probably during Roman times most of the coastal plains were inhabited and cultivated or used as pastures.

We can conclude that the environment of the area at the time of Pliny the Younger was indeed quite similar to the present conditions of the Castelporziano area.

6 Selected texts (book 2, letter 17)

6.1 Latin

(1) Miraris, com me Laurentinum vel, si ita mavis, Laurens meum tanto opere delectet, desines mirari, cum cognoveris gratiam villae, oportunitatem loci, litoris spatium. Decem et septem milibus passuum ab urbe secessit ut, peractis quae agenda fuerint, salvo iam et composito die, possis ibi manere. Aditur non una via: nam et Laurentina et Ostiensis eodem ferunt, sed Laurentina a quarto decimo lapide, Ostiensis ab undecimo reliquenda est. Utrimque excipit iter aliqua ex parte harenosum, iunctis paulo gravius et longius, equo breve et molle. Varia hinc atque inde facies; nam modo occurrentibus silvis via coartatur, modo latissimis pratis diffunditur et patescit; multi greges ovium, multa ibi equorum boum armenta, quae montibus hieme depulsa herbis et tepore verno nitescunt.

(14) Gestatio buxo aut rore marino, ubi deficit buxus ambitur: nam buxus, qua parte defenditur tectis, abunde viret; aperto coelo apertoque vento, et quamquam longiqua aspergine maris inarescit. Adiacet gestationi interiore circumito vinea tenera et umbrosa nudisque etiam pedibus mollis et cedens. Hortum morus et ficus frequenter vestit, quarum arborum illa vel maxime ferax terra est, malignior ceteris.

(25) Et omnino litoris illius mira natura: quocumque loco moveris humum, obvius et paratus umor occurrit, isque sinccrus ac ne leviter quidem tanta maris vicinitate corruptus. Suggerunt affatim ligna proximae silvae: ceteras copias Ostiensis colonia ministrat.

Litus ornant varietate gratissima nunc continua, nunc intermissa, tecta villarum, quae prestant multarum urbium faciem, sive mari sive ipso litore utare; quod non numquam longa tranquillitas mollit, saepius frequens et contrarius fluctus indurat. Mare non sane pretiosis piscibus abundat soleas tamen et squillas optimas egerit. Villa vere nostra etiam mediterraneas copias praestat, lac in primis: nam illuc e pascuis pecora conveniunt, si quando aquam umbramve sectantur.

6.2 English translation (from http://www.gutenberg.org 2013)

(1) You are surprised that I am so fond of my Laurentine, or (if you prefer the name) my Laurens: but you will cease to wonder when I acquaint you with the beauty of the villa, the advantages of its situation, and the extensive view of the sea-coast. It is only seventeen miles from Rome: so that when I have finished my business in town, I can pass my evenings here after a good satisfactory day’s work. There are two different roads to it: if you go by that of Laurentum, you must turn off at the fourteenth mile-stone; if by Ostia, at the eleventh. Both of them are sandy in places, which makes it a little heavier and longer by carriage, but short and easy on horseback. The landscape affords plenty of variety, the view in some places being closed in by woods, in others extending over broad meadows, where numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, which the severity of the winter has driven from the mountains, fatten in the spring warmth, and on the rich pasturage.

(14) The gestatio [avenue] is bordered round with box, and, where that is decayed, with rosemary: for the box, wherever sheltered by the buildings, grows plentifully, but where it lies open and exposed to the weather and spray from the sea, though at some distance from the latter, it quite withers up. Next the gestatio, and running along inside it, is a shady vine plantation, the path of which is so soft and easy to the tread that you may walk bare-foot upon it. The garden is chiefly planted with fig and mulberry trees, to which this soil is as favourable as it is averse from all others. Here is a dining-room, which, though it stands away from the sea enjoys the garden view which is just as pleasant.

(25) And, altogether, the quality of this coast is remarkable; for dig where you may, you meet, upon the first turning up of the ground, with a spring of water, quite pure, not in the least salt, although so near the sea. The neighbouring woods supply us with all the fuel we require, the other necessaries Ostia furnishes. Indeed, to a moderate man, even the village (between which and my house there is only one villa) would supply all ordinary requirements. It has three public baths, which are a great convenience if it happens that friends come in unexpectedly, or make too short a stay to allow time in preparing my own. The whole coast is very pleasantly sprinkled with villas either in rows or detached, which whether looking at them from the sea or the shore, present the appearance of so many different cities. The strand is, sometimes, after a long calm, perfectly smooth, though, in general, through the storms driving the waves upon it, it is rough and uneven. I cannot boast that our sea is plentiful in choice fish; however, it supplies us with capital soles and prawns; but as to other kinds of provisions, my villa aspires to excel even inland countries, particularly in milk: for the cattle come up there from the meadows in large numbers, in pursuit of water and shade.