Abstract
Objectives
Oral cancer is the eighth most common type of cancer worldwide and a significant contributor to the global burden caused by this disease. The principal parameters considered to influence prognosis, and thus treatment selection, are size and location of the primary tumor, as well as assessment of the presence and extent of lymph node and distant metastasis (DM). However, no known report regarding the relationship between the primary site and DM has been presented. For effective treatment selection and good prognosis, the correlation of DM with anatomic site and histopathology results of the primary malignancy is important. In the present study, we performed a systematic review of published reports in an effort to determine the relationship between the anatomic site of various types of oral cavity cancer and DM.
Methods
A systematic review of articles published until the end of 2018 was performed using PubMed/MEDLINE.
Results
A total of 150 studies were selected for this review. The percentage of all cases reported with DM was 6.3%, ranging from 0.6% to 33.1% in the individual studies. The rate of incidence of tongue occurrence was 9.3%. A frequent DM site was the lungs, with adenoid cystic carcinoma the most commonly involved histopathological factor. Malignant melanoma was most frequent (43.4%) in all histopathology findings, whereas there were no cases with an acinic cell carcinoma or cystadenocarcinoma.
Conclusions
We found that the occurrence of DM from the primary site as well as rate of incidence was dependent on histopathological factors.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
Oral cancer is the eighth most common cancer worldwide and a significant contributor to the global burden caused by this disease [1], with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) noted in 90% of diagnosed cases [2]. The staging system of the American Joint Committee on Cancer for oral squamous cell carcinoma, commonly used to determine the extent of disease and predict clinical outcome, is based on primary tumor classification (T), which is assessed as the maximum diameter of the tumor, quantification of nodal metastases (N) according to size, number, and distribution, and the presence of distant metastasis (M) (DM) [3]. However, the American Joint Committee on Cancer revised its staging system for neoplasms in 2016 (eighth edition); thus TNM classification of Malignant Tumors was revised in 2017. Depth of tumor invasion was newly added as factor for T classification of the oral cavity and extra-nodal extension was newly added as a factor for N classification [4].
The presence or absence of lymph node metastasis has often been cited as the most important predictor of outcome [2]; thus several related studies have been presented. Furthermore, size and location of the primary tumor, as well as assessment of the presence and extent of lymph node metastasis, and DM are the principal investigated parameters influencing prognosis and thus treatment selection [5]. While the relationship of DM with various histopathological factors, such as SCC, salivary gland malignancy, and sarcoma, has been investigated, no report regarding the relationship between various primary sites of oral cavity cancer and DM has been presented. For effective treatment selection and good prognosis, it is important to understand the correlation of DM with the anatomic site and histopathology findings of the primary malignancy. In the present study, we performed a systematic review of published reports in an effort to determine the relationship between the anatomic site of various types of oral cavity cancer and DM.
Materials and methods
Using the PubMed/MEDLINE service, we performed a systematic search of studies published until the end of 2018 using the following key words: medical heading (Mesh-)terms “oral” OR “gingiva” OR “gingival” OR “tongue” OR “cheek” OR “buccal mucosa” OR “palate” OR “submandibular gland” OR “sublingual gland” OR “mandible” OR “mandibular” OR “maxilla” OR “maxillary” or “lip” AND “distant metastases” OR “distant metastasis”.
After obtaining summaries of the studies obtained in that search, we selected relevant articles according to specific criteria, which included publication in English, number of cases of SCC greater than 50, and number of non-SCC cases greater than 10, while the exclusion criteria were case reports, reviews, studies in which the primary tumor was not pathologically confirmed, and studies that showed no relationship between histopathology and DM. Inclusion of salivary glands was permitted, while parotid gland cases were excluded. The initial step for study selection was analysis of the title and abstract, then all studies considered relevant were obtained and analyzed in full. Finally, based on consensus, the final selected articles were analyzed and included in systematization of the present data.
Evaluations
The numbers of overall cases and DM cases were summed for each histopathology type and then the site of occurrence was analyzed in accordance with histopathology results. Relationships between the primary site and DM frequency, between the primary site and DM site, between histopathology results and DM site, and between histopathology results and DM frequency were then examined.
Results
For the present systematic review, 137 studies were selected, while additional 13 articles were selected from review articles and added, for a total 150 used in this study. The pathology results in those study cases are shown in Table 1. Many of the studies included several different results, though we did not classify the histopathology subtype. The most frequent was SCC (104 studies) [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109], followed by ACC (23 studies) [74, 110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131], malignant melanoma (11 studies) [122, 132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141] and sarcoma (11 studies) [122, 142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151], mucoepidermoid carcinoma (8 studies) [74, 111, 112, 117, 122, 125,126,127], and adenocarcinoma (7 studies) [74, 111, 112, 117, 122, 126, 152].
Table 2 shows the relationship between primary cancer site and DM frequency. The total number of cases was 47, 841 and that of cases with DM was 3013, for a rate of 6.3% of all cases, with a range of 0.6% to 33.1% in the individual studies. An anatomic site was most frequent, followed by the lip and tongue. The 2 most frequent anatomic sites of DM were submandibular (33.1%) and sublingual (31.4%) glands, while the lip had the lowest frequency (0.6%). The rate of incidence of DM related to the tongue was 9.3%.
All studies did not describe relationship between primary site and DM site, and relationship between histopathology results and DM site. Only 51 articles of all described the distant metastases site [9, 13, 14, 17, 19, 30, 34, 38, 40, 43, 44, 47, 61, 63, 67, 70, 72, 75, 79, 80, 83, 88, 90, 94, 102, 103, 110, 112, 118,119,120, 122, 123, 125,126,127,128, 132, 134,135,136,137, 140, 144, 146,147,148,149,150, 154].
Thus Table 3 demonstrates the relationship between primary site and DM site and Table 4 demonstrates the relationship between histopathology results and DM site.
The relationships between the primary and DM sites are presented in Table 3. A site in the lungs (574 of all 1,014sites) was the most frequent, followed by bone, whereas the brain (24 sites) had the lowest frequency. When the tongue was the primary site, the most frequent site of DM was the lungs, followed by bone. Frequent anatomic sites related to lung DM were the tongue, maxilla, cheek, mandible and sublingual gland, while the hard palate as an anatomic site was frequently related to bone metastasis.
Table 4 shows relationships between histopathology results and DM site. ACC metastasis was most frequently found in the lungs. The incidence of DM from SCC was relatively low, while metastasis of a malignant melanoma to the liver was frequently noted (29 of 192 sites).
The relationships of histopathology results and DM frequency are presented in Table 5. Malignant melanoma was most frequently noted (43.4%), whereas there were no reports of acinic cell carcinoma or cystadenocarcinoma. Among all histopathological factors, the frequency of SCC (5.3%) was relatively low.
Discussion
Primary sites
Tongue
The most common type of intraoral malignancy was found to be SCC of the tongue and, after excluding lip lesions, that was shown to account for 25–40% of oral carcinoma cases, with DM generally occurring in the lungs or liver [156]. Among the studies examined, the tongue was the most frequently noted anatomic site, though the incidence of DM (9.3%) from the tongue was lower as compared with other anatomic sites. Histopathology findings showed SCC (2,458of 2506cases) most often, followed by ACC (43 of 2506). For ACC, the incidence of DM was 37.2%, which was higher as compared to that of SCC (8.7%). When treating a case of ACC, it might be necessary to perform screening for DM. The most frequent site of DM was the lungs and, though the rate of incidence of low, a lung examination may be necessary in affected patients.
Cheek
Cheek lesions accounted for approximately 10% of all oral SCC cases [156]. In this examination, the cheek was a relatively frequent anatomic site, while the incidence of DM was 12.4%, lower as compared with other anatomic sites. The most common histopathology finding was SCC (786 of 836 cases), followed by ACC (35 of 836). As for the anatomic site of ACC, the frequency of cheek occurrence was higher than that of SCC. In the myoepithelial carcinoma cases, the incidence of DM was 1 of 7 cases and the most frequent site of metastasis was the lungs. Again, the rate of incidence was low, though a lung examination might be necessary.
Oral floor
Oral floor lesions accounted for 15% to 20% of oral SCC occurrence [156]. The incidence of DM was 17.7%, while the most frequent site was the lungs. Compared with the tongue, cheek, DM activity of oral floor was higher.
Gingiva, including upper and lower gingiva
Gingival lesions accounted for approximately 10% of the oral SCC cases [156], with occurrence in the upper more frequent than in the lower gingiva. The most frequent site in both the upper and lower gingiva was lung.
Jaw (maxilla and mandible)
Primary malignant neoplasm of epithelium (i.e. SCC) may raise from any mucosal surface including gingiva. Sarcomas, arising from cells with a mesenchymal lineage are most common in the mandible and in the posterior regions of both jaws [157]. Thus, jaw (maxilla and mandible) was included in the primary sites.
In cases of the jaw, the incidence of DM in the mandible was greater than that in the maxilla, while the site of metastasis for both was the lungs.
Lip
A lip carcinoma accounted for 25–30% of all oral cancer cases [156]. In the present survey, the lip was the most frequently reported anatomic site. DM from the lip was uncommon (0.6%), though the rate of incidence related to ACC was 36.4% and higher than that for SCC. DM from the lip appeared in the lungs; thus, as in cases of ACC, it might be necessary to perform screening for metastasis there.
Palate (including hard and soft palate)
Lesions of the palate accounted for 10% to 20% of all intraoral lesions [156]. Frequently, the histopathology of DM was shown to be ACC, with metastasis occurring more often from a hard palate as compared to a soft palate tumor. The frequency of malignant melanoma was lower than that of ACC, though the incidence of DM was higher (37.3% vs. 24.2%). A frequent site of metastasis from the hard palate was bone.
Submandibular gland
Histopathology findings showing submandibular gland tumors most often indicated ACC, followed by salivary duct carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, malignant mixed tumor, adenocarcinoma and SCC. The incidence rate of DM was high (> 25%) and the site was predominantly the lungs. For cases of malignancy in the submandibular gland, lung screening may be necessary.
Sublingual gland
The histopathology findings of sublingual gland tumors most often indicated ACC, followed by adenocarcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, salivary duct carcinoma, malignant mixed tumor and myoepithelial carcinoma. Except for ACC, the number of other types of cases was quite low, whereas the incidence of DM was high.
Minor glands
For minor glands, histopathology findings frequently showed ACC, followed by adenocarcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma and malignant mixed tumor. DM from a submandibular, sublingual, or minor gland had high rates of incidence of 33.1%, 31.4% and 22.6%, respectively. Histopathology findings for nearly all salivary gland tumors indicated ACC. For cases of ACC or salivary duct carcinoma, it is recommended to perform an examination of possible DM from the primary tumor.
Histopathology results
SCC
Relative to the incidence of all types of cancer, oral and oropharyngeal SCC cases represented approximately 3% of those occurring in males and 2% of those in females [156]. Ninety percent of the oral cancer tumors were squamous cell carcinoma (SCC [2].
Of 47,841cases reviewed in this study, SCC occurred in 45,404 (94.9%). The primary site was the lip, followed by tongue and cheek. Furthermore, the rate of incidence of DM was 5.3% (2407/45,404), while the frequency of metastasis from the tongue, gingiva, upper gingiva and cheek was approximately10%, while that frequency from the lip was lower and oral floor was higher. Thus, the frequency of DM of SCC was low overall as compared other histopathological factors. The average incidence rate for the tongue, gingival tissue (including upper and lower gingiva) and cheek was 9.9%. Therefore, SCC cases showing DM, excluding occurrence in the lip and oral floor were thought to comprise approximately 10% of all.
The most frequent site of DM was the lungs, followed by bone and liver. Occurrence in the liver was more frequent as compared with other histopathology findings, while the rate of incidence of DM to the lungs was approximately 50%. Thus, it might be necessary to perform lung screening at the initial examination of affected patients.
An SCC arising within the salivary glands is relatively rare, though the submandibular gland is most commonly involved in those cases, while DM is unusual [156]. In this review, we found only 3 of 45,404 SCC cases that occurred in the submandibular gland, the site with the lowest rate of incidence. On the other hand, DM from the submandibular gland was noted in 2 of 3 cases; thus SCC arising within the salivary glands might be prone to DM.
ACC
Approximately 50% to 70% of ACC cases occur in minor salivary glands of the head and neck, chiefly the palate, with distant spreading to the lungs more common than metastasis to regional lymph nodes [156]. In this study, our results showed that the hard palate was most often involved. As for the rate of incidence of DM, the average for ACC was 23.7% (306/1293) which was higher than that for SCC (5.3% (2407/45,404)). The rate of DM from the tongue, lip, submandibular, sublingual, and minor glands, and soft palate was greater than 30%, while the oral floor had a lower frequency. Nearly all metastasis sites were in the lungs. In this review, the number of cases from the lip was very few, though the DM ratio (36.4%) was high as compared to that of SCC (0.4%). When ACC occurs in the lip, it might be necessary to screen for DM.
Malignant melanoma
An oral mucosal melanoma represented only about 0.5% of all oral malignancies, with 80% occurring in the palate, maxillary alveolus, or gingivae [158]. In this study, the most frequent anatomic sites were found to the lip, palate (including hard palate) and gingiva (upper and lower), while the sites of DM were the lungs, liver and bone, with the latter more frequent as compared with the others. The incidence of malignant melanoma was higher than that of SCC in cases of lip occurrence, thus screening for DM from the primary tumor might be necessary in affected patients.
Sarcoma
For the present study, sarcoma included hard tissues and non-osseous tumors. An osteosarcoma is more likely to metastasize to the lungs or brain as compared to regional lymph nodes [156]. We found that the frequency for regional lymph nodes has not been reported; thus there are no data available for examining the relationship with DM. The average incidence rate of DM for sarcoma was 23.7% (77/325), significantly greater than that for SCC (5.3% (2407/45,404)), and screening for metastasis may be necessary in affected patients. In our findings, the most frequent sites of DM were the lungs and bone.
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma
A mucoepidermoid carcinoma accounted for approximately 34% of parotid, 20% of submandibular gland, and 30% of minor salivary gland malignancies [156]. About 53% of mucoepidermoid carcinoma cases show occurrence in the major glands, while 45% occur in the parotid, 7% in the submandibular, and 1% percent in the sublingual glands [159]. The most often involved sites of DM from a mucoepidermoid carcinoma are the lungs, bone and brain [159]. The incidence of DM was 5.6% (5/90), which was the same as that of SCC. As compared with other salivary glands, the incidence of malignancy was low.
Adenocarcinoma
Previous examination showed that approximately 41% of adenocarcinoma occurrence is in minor glands and 59% in major glands [159]. In cases of major gland occurrence, 11% are in the submandibular gland and less than 0.5% in the sublingual gland, while DM was seen in 26% of these cases, with the lungs involved in approximately 50% of those [159]. We noted that the incidence of DM was 4.2% (2/48), which was low as compared with other salivary gland malignancies.
Malignant mixed tumor
Malignant mixed tumor most frequently arises in the parotid gland; but may also originate from the submandibular gland and minor salivary sites, most commonly the palate, occasionally with involvement of the nasopharynx [158]. The metastatic rate varies with each series; up to 70% of patients develop local or distant metastasis [158]. Metastatic sites in oral of frequency are lung bone (especially spine), abdomen and central nervous system [158]. The submandibular gland was involved in 8 of all 35 cases. DM incidence of the submandibular gland was 25% (2/8).
Acinic cell carcinoma
Approximately 80% of acinic cell carcinomas develop in the parotid gland, while the submandibular gland was the site of occurrence in 4% and the intraoral minor gland in 17% of these cases, with DM noted in approximately 15% of the affected patients [156]. Although the number of acinic cell carcinoma cases was quite low, DM was seen in 0% (0/7%), thus metastasis may be rare.
Salivary duct carcinoma
A salivary duct carcinoma is a high-grade malignancy of the major salivary gland. The parotid gland was involved in more than 80% of the cases, while the remainder occurred in the submandibular glands, with lung and bone metastasis often noted [156]. The incidence of DM in these patients was high at 30.4% (7/23) and most frequently in association with a malignant salivary gland tumor, though salivary duct carcinoma had a low rate of frequency among all of the pathological factors. The submandibular gland was involved in 19 of all 23 cases reported.
Myoepithelial carcinoma
The majority of myoepithelial carcinoma occurrence was in major glands, particularly the parotid gland (80%) [158]. The rate of DM was higher as compared to that of the cervical lymph node [159] The incidence of DM was 6.3% (2/32) and that was relatively low as compared with the other pathological factors.
Cystadenocarcinoma
Cystadenocarcinomas accounted for 2% of malignant salivary gland tumors and approximately 60% occurred in major salivary glands [159]. The total number of these cases was 10 and the rate of incidence of DM was 0% (0/10).
DM rate from lip of SCC was relatively low (0.4%), while that of ACC was high (36.4%). DM rate from tongue of SCC was relatively low (8.7%), while that of ACC was high (37.2%). DM rate from oral floor of SCC was relatively high (17.7%), while that of ACC was low (7.1%). But rates of DM spreading from the submandibular gland of almost histopathology were high. Thus it might be that DM would be dependent on histopathology but not on primary site. However, occurrence of DM from submandibular gland might be thought to be high.
Limitations of this study include a lack of consideration of the timing of evaluation of DM, the treatment method used for the primary lesion and patient characteristics. If those were considered, the DM incidence ratios might be different. Although some studies have described methods of DM evaluation, including autopsy, CT and PET results, such descriptions are rare. Thus, methods for evaluating DM are not discussed in the present study.
Conclusion
We found that the occurrence of DM from the primary site and well as rate of incidence was dependent on histopathological factors. The majority of tumors occurring in the tongue and cheek were SCC, with the DM ratio the same at approximately 10%. The rates of DM spreading from the submandibular, sublingual and minor glands were high at 33.1%, 31.4% and 22.6%, respectively.
References
Petersen PE. Oral cancer prevention and control–the approach of the World Health Organization. Oral Oncol. 2009;45:454–60.
Ong W, Zhao Z, Lui B, Tan W, Ebrahimi A, Clark JR, et al. Prognostic significance of lymph node density in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Head Neck. 2016;38(1):E859–E866866.
Patel SG, Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Chaturvedi P, Agarwal JP, et al. Lymph node density in oral cavity cancer: results of the International Consortium for Outcomes Research. Br J Cancer. 2013;109:2087–95.
Monden N, Asakage T, Kiyota N, Homma A, Matsuura K, Hanai N, et al. A review of head and neck cancer staging system in the TNM classification of malignant tumors (eighth edition) Head and Neck Cancer Study Group (HNCSG) Japanese. J Clin Oncol. 2019;49(7):589–95.
Blatt S, Ziebart T, Krüger M, Pabst AM. Diagnosing oral squamous cell carcinoma: How much imaging do we really need? A review of the current literature. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2016;44(5):538–49.
Alvi A, Johnson JT. Development of distant metastasis after treatment of advanced-stage head and neck cancer. Head Neck. 1997;19(6):500–5.
Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Chaturvedi P, Agarwal JP, Kowalski LP, et al. International Consortium for Outcome Research (ICOR) in Head and Neck Cancer. Improvement in survival of patients with oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma: an International Collaborative study. Cancer. 2013;119(24):4242–8.
Ballard BR, Suess GR, Pickren JW, Greene GW Jr, Shedd DP. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the floor of the mouth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1978;45(4):568–79.
Carlson ER, Ord RA. Vertebral metastases from oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;60(8):858–62.
Chen TC, Hsu CW, Lou PJ, Ko JY, Yang TL, Chen CN, et al. The clinical predictive factors for subsequent distant metastasis in patients with locoregionally advanced oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(4):367–73.
Crombie AK, Farah C, Tripcony L, Dickie G, Batstone MD. Primary chemoradiotherapy for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2012;48(10):1014–8.
Davis MA, Tyrrell J, Slotman GJ, Sudhindra R, Sachdeva K, Fanelle J, et al. Southern New Jersey Head and Neck Cancer Treatment Network. Preoperative simultaneous fractionated cisplatin and radiation therapy in the treatment of advanced operable stage III and IV squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Am J Surg. 2015;209(3):575–9.
Visscher JG, van den Elsaker K, Grond AJ, van der Wal JE, van der Waal I. Surgical treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip: evaluation of long-term results and prognostic factors a retrospective analysis of 184 patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1998;56(7):814–20.
de Visscher JG, Grond AJ, Botke G, van der Waal I. Results of radiotherapy for squamous cell carcinoma of the vermilion border of the lower lip. A retrospective analysis of 108 patients. Radiother Oncol. 1996;39(1):9–14.
Driemel O, Ettl T, Kölbl O, Reichert TE, Dresp BV, Reuther J, et al. Outcome and histopathologic regression in oral squamous cell carcinoma after preoperative radiochemotherapy. Strahlenther Onkol. 2009;185(5):296–302.
Duan X, Chen H, Ma H, Song Y. The expression and significance of the HOXA7 gene in oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Sci. 2017;59(3):329–35.
Eich HT, Lschcke M, Scheer M, Kocher M, Bongartz R, Wacker S, et al. Neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy and radical resection for advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Outcome of 134 patients. Strahlenther Onkol. 2008;184(1):23–9.
Ellis ER, Mendenhall WM, Rao PV, Parsons JT, Spangler AE, Million RR. Does node location affect the incidence of distant metastases in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1989;17(2):293–7.
Ellis GL, Corio RL. Spindle cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. A clinicopathologic assessment of fifty-nine cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1980;50(6):523–34.
Ettl T, Driemel O, Dresp BV, Reichert TE, Reuther J, Pistner H. Feasibility of alloplastic mandibular reconstruction in patients following removal of oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2010;38(5):350–4.
Faisal M, Abbas T, Khaleeq U, Adeel M, Anwer AW, Hussain R, et al. Treatment outcomes of rare retromolar trigone squamous cell carcinoma using combined modalities. Cureus. 2017;9(5):e1203. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1203.
Fan L, Hu X, Lin S, Zhou W, Fu S, Lv H. Concurrent preoperative chemotherapy and three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy followed by surgery for oral squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective analysis of 104 cases. Oncotarget. 2017;8(43):75557–67.
Fang KH, Kao HK, Cheng MH, Chang YL, Tsang NM, Huang YC, et al. Histological differentiation of primary oral squamous cell carcinomas in an area of betel quid chewing prevalence. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2009;141(6):743–9.
Farnedi A, Rossi S, Bertani N, Gulli M, Silini EM, Mucignat MT, et al. Proteoglycan-based diversification of disease outcome in head and neck cancer patients identifies NG2/CSPG4 and syndecan-2 as unique relapse and overall survival predicting factors. BMC Cancer. 2015;15:352. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-015-1336-4.
Fazekas JT, Sommer C, Kramer S. Tumor regression and other prognosticators in advanced head and neck cancers: a sequel to the RTOG methotrexate study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1983;9(7):957–64.
Feng Z, Li JN, Li CZ, Guo CB. Elective neck dissection versus observation in the management of early tongue carcinoma with clinically node-negative neck: a retrospective study of 229 cases. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2014;42(6):806–10.
Freier K, Engel M, Lindel K, Flechtenmacher C, Mühling J, Hassfeld S, et al. Neoadjuvant concurrent radiochemotherapy followed by surgery in advanced oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC): a retrospective analysis of 207 patients. Oral Oncol. 2008;44(2):116–23.
Fritsch VA, Gerry DR, Lentsch EJ. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: an analysis of 92 cases. Laryngoscope. 2014;124(7):1573–8.
Garavello W, Ciardo A, Spreafico R, Gaini RM. Risk factors for distant metastases in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;132(7):762–6.
Geretschläger A, Bojaxhiu B, Crowe S, Arnold A, Manser P, Hallermann W, et al. Outcome and patterns of failure after postoperative intensity modulated radiotherapy for locally advanced or high-risk oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Radiat Oncol. 2012;22(7):175. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-717X-7-175.
Gontarz M, Wyszyńska-Pawelec G, Zapała J, Czopek J, Lazar A, Tomaszewska R. Immunohistochemical predictors in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue and floor of the mouth. Head Neck. 2016;38(Suppl 1):E747–E753753.
Grau JJ, Cuchi A, Traserra J, Frvida JL, Arias C, Blanch JL, et al. Follow-up study in head and neck cancer: cure rate according to tumor location and stage. Oncology. 1997;54(1):38–42.
Greenberg JS, Fowler R, Gomez J, Mo V, Roberts D, El Naggar AK, et al. Extent of extracapsular spread: a critical prognosticator in oral tongue cancer. Cancer. 2003;97(6):1464–70.
Grimm M. Prognostic value of clinicopathological parameters and outcome in 484 patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma: microvascular invasion (V+) is an independent prognostic factor for OSCC. Clin Transl Oncol. 2012;14(11):870–80.
Grbe A, Blessmann M, Hanken H, Friedrich RE, Schn G, Wikner J, et al. Prognostic relevance of circulating tumor cells in blood and disseminated tumor cells in bone marrow of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Clin Cancer Res. 2014;20(2):425–33.
Gueiros LA, Coletta RD, Kowalski LP, Lopes MA. Clinicopathological features and proliferation markers in tongue squamous cell carcinomas. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011;40(5):510–5.
Gumusay O, Ozet A, Buyukberber S, Baykara M, Coskun U, Cetin B, et al. Factors predicting the development of distant metastases in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective study from a single centre. J BUON. 2015;20(2):521–6.
Hasegawa T, Tanakura M, Takeda D, Sakakibara A, Akashi M, Minamikawa T, et al. Risk factors associated with distant metastasis in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2015;152(6):1053–60.
Ho HC, Lee MS, Hsiao SH, Hwang JH, Hung SK, Chou P, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity in young patients: a matched-pair analysis. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;265(Suppl 1):S57–61.
Holm LE, Lundquist PG, Rudën BI, Silfverswärd C, Sobin A, Wersäll J. Combined preoperative radiotherapy and surgery in the treatment of carcinoma of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. Laryngoscope. 1983;93(6):792–6.
Honorato J, Rebelo MS, Dias FL, Camisasca DR, Faria PA, Azevedoe SG, et al. Gender differences in prognostic factors for oral cancer. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;44(10):1205–11.
Hosni A, McMullen C, Huang SH, Xu W, Su J, Bayley A, et al. Lymph node ratio relationship to regional failure and distant metastases in oral cavity cancer. Radiother Oncol. 2017;124(2):225–31.
Hosni A, Huang SH, Xu W, Su J, Bayley A, Bratman SV, et al. Distant Metastases following postoperative intensity-modulated radiotherapy for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017;143(4):368–75.
Huang C, Sun Z, Sun Y, Chen X, Zhu X, Fan C, et al. Association of increased ligand cyclophilin A and receptor CD147 with hypoxia, angiogenesis, metastasis and prognosis of tongue squamous cell carcinoma. Histopathology. 2012;60(5):793–803.
Huang CF, Xu XR, Wu TF, Sun ZJ, Zhang WF. Correlation of ALDH1, CD44, OCT4 and SOX2 in tongue squamous cell carcinoma and their association with disease progression and prognosis. J Oral Pathol Med. 2014;43(7):492–8.
Huang CG, Lee LA, Tsao KC, Liao CT, Yang LY, Kang CJ, et al. Human papillomavirus 16/18 E7 viral loads predict distant metastasis in oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. J Clin Virol. 2014;61(2):230–6.
Huang CH, Chu ST, Ger LP, Hou YY, Sun CP. Clinicopathologic evaluation of prognostic factors for squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa. J Chin Med Assoc. 2007;70(4):164–70.
Imai R, Takenaka Y, Yasui T, Nakahara S, Yamamoto Y, Hanamoto A, et al. Prognostic significance of serum squamous cell carcinoma antigen in patients with head and neck cancer. Acta Otolaryngol. 2015;135(3):295–301.
Imajyo I, Sugiura T, Kobayashi Y, Shimoda M, Ishii K, Akimoto N, et al. T-box transcription factor Brachyury expression is correlated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition and lymph node metastasis in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oncol. 2012;41(6):1985–95.
Jaafari-Ashkavandi Z, Khademi B, Akbari S, Malekzadeh M. Serum level of mast cell tryptase in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma: lack of correlation with clinicopathologic factors. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2013;14(5):2955–8.
Jerjes W, Upile T, Hamdoon Z, Mosse CA, Akram S, Hopper C. Prospective evaluation of outcome after transoral CO(2) laser resection of T1/T2 oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2011;112(2):180–7.
Jerjes W, Upile T, Petrie A, Riskalla A, Hamdoon Z, Vourvachis M, et al. Clinicopathological parameters, recurrence, locoregional and distant metastasis in 115 T1–T2 oral squamous cell carcinoma patients. Head Neck Oncol. 2010;2:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-3284-2-9.
Jian CX, Yang MZ, Li P, Xiong J, Zhang ZJ, Li CJ, et al. Ectopically expressed IBP promotes cell proliferation in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Invest. 2012;30(10):748–56.
Jinno T, Kawano S, Maruse Y, Matsubara R, Goto Y, Sakamoto T, et al. Increased expression of interleukin-6 predicts poor response to chemoradiotherapy and unfavorable prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oncol Rep. 2015;33(5):2161–8.
Kalnins IK, Leonard AG, Sako K, Razack MS, Shedd DP. Correlation between prognosis and degree of lymph node involvement in carcinoma of the oral cavity. Am J Surg. 1977;134(4):450–4.
Kang CJ, Lin CY, Yang LY, Ho TY, Lee LY, Fan KH, et al. Positive clinical impact of an additional PET/CT scan before adjuvant radiotherapy or concurrent chemoradiotherapy in patients with advanced oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. J Nucl Med. 2015;56(1):22–30.
Kang CJ, Lin CY, Wang HM, Fan KH, Ng SH, Lee LY, et al. The number of pathologically positive lymph nodes and pathological tumor depth predicts prognosis in patients with poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011;81(4):e223–e230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2011.03.060.
Katayama A, Bandoh N, Kishibe K, Takahara M, Ogino T, Nonaka S, et al. Expressions of matrix metalloproteinases in early-stage oral squamous cell carcinoma as predictive indicators for tumor metastases and prognosis. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(2):634–40.
Kawano S, Zheng Y, Oobu K, Matsubara R, Goto Y, Chikui T, et al. Clinicopathological evaluation of pre-operative chemoradiotherapy with S-1 as a treatment for locally advanced oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oncol Lett. 2016;11(5):3369–76.
Kim SY, Roh JL, Kim JS, Ryu CH, Lee JH, Cho KJ, et al. Utility of FDG PET in patients with squamous cell carcinomas of the oral cavity. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2008;34(2):208–15.
Kina S, Nakasone T, Kinjo T, Maruyama T, Kawano T, Arasaki A. Impact of metronomic neoadjuvant chemotherapy on early tongue cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2016;78(4):833–40.
Kotwall C, Sako K, Razack MS, Rao U, Bakamjian V, Shedd DP. Metastatic patterns in squamous cell cancer of the head and neck. Am J Surg. 1987;154(4):439–42.
Krabbe CA, Pruim J, van der Laan BF, Rdiger LA, Roodenburg JL. FDG-PET and detection of distant metastases and simultaneous tumors in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a comparison with chest radiography and chest CT. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(3):234–40.
Precht C, Baustian S, Tribius S, Schöllchen M, Hanken H, Smeets R, et al. The benefit of abdominal sonography and chest X-ray for staging oral squamous cell carcinomas in stages UICC I and II. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2016;44(2):186–90.
Kruse AL, Lübbers HT, Grätz KW. Evaluation of white blood cell count as a possible prognostic marker for oral cancer. Head Neck Oncol. 2011;27(3):13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-3284-3-13.
Len X, Quer M, Ors C, del Prado VM, Lpez M. Distant metastases in head and neck cancer patients who achieved loco-regional control. Head Neck. 2000;22(7):680–6.
Liao CT, Wang HM, Chang JT, Ng SH, Hsueh C, Lee LY, et al. Analysis of risk factors for distant metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Cancer. 2007;110(7):1501–8.
Liao CT, Wang HM, Hsieh LL, Chang JT, Ng SH, Hsueh C, et al. Higher distant failure in young age tongue cancer patients. Oral Oncol. 2006;42(7):718–25.
Ljumanovic R, Langendijk JA, Hoekstra OS, Leemans CR, Castelijns JA. Distant metastases in head and neck carcinoma: identification of prognostic groups with MR imaging. Eur J Radiol. 2006;60(1):58–66.
Losi-Guembarovski R, Menezes RP, Poliseli F, Chaves VN, Kuasne H, Leichsenring A, et al. Oral carcinoma epidemiology in Paraná, Southern Brazil. Cad Saúde Pública. 2009;25(2):393–400.
Ong HS, Gokavarapu S, Wang LZ, Tian Z, Zhang CP. Low pretreatment lymphocyte-monocyte ratio and high platelet-lymphocyte ratio indicate poor cancer outcome in early tongue cancer. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;75(8):1762–74.
Osaki T, Yoneda K, Yamamoto T, Kimura T, Matuoka H, Sakai H, et al. Clinical investigation on pulmonary metastasis of head and neck carcinomas. Oncology. 2000;59(3):196–203.
Rena W, Lia Y, Liua C, Qianga C, Zhang L, Gaoa L, et al. Surgical management of squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip: an experience of 109 cases. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2014;19(4):e398–402.
Roh JL, Choi SH, Lee SW, Cho KJ, Nam SY, Kim SY. Carcinomas arising in the submandibular gland: high propensity for systemic failure. J Surg Oncol. 2008;97(6):533–7.
Sakamoto Y, Matsushita Y, Yamada S, Yanamoto S, Shiraishi T, Asahina I, et al. Risk factors of distant metastasis in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2016;121(5):474–80.
Santos HBP, Miguel MCDC, Pinto LP, Gordón-Núñez MA, Alves PM, Nonaka CFW. Multinucleated giant cell reaction in lower lip squamous cell carcinoma: a clinical, morphological, and immunohistochemical study. J Oral Pathol Med. 2017;46(9):773–9.
Soudry E, Preis M, Hod R, Hamzany Y, Hadar T, Bahar G, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue in patients younger than 30 years: clinicopathologic features and outcome. Clin Otolaryngol. 2010;35(4):307–12.
Spiro RH, Guillamondegui O Jr, Paulino AF, Huvos AG. Pattern of invasion and margin assessment in patients with oral tongue cancer. Head Neck. 1999;21(5):408–13.
Stuckensen T, Kovács AF, Adams S, Baum RP. Staging of the neck in patients with oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas: a prospective comparison of PET, ultrasound. CT and MRI J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2000;28(6):319–24.
Sturgis EM, Moore BA, Glisson BS, Kies MS, Shin DM, Byers RM. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue in young adults: a case series. Head Neck. 2005;27(9):748–56.
Su HH, Chu ST, Hou YY, Chang KP, Chen CJ. Spindle cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx: factors affecting outcome. J Chin Med Assoc. 2006;69(10):478–83.
Su PF, Huang WL, Wu HT, Wu CH, Liu TY, Kao SY. p16(INK4A) promoter hypermethylation is associated with invasiveness and prognosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma in an age-dependent manner. Oral Oncol. 2010;46(10):734–9.
Sumioka S, Sawai NY, Kishino M, Ishihama K, Minami M, Okura M. Risk factors for distant metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;71(7):1291–7.
Suton P, Salaric I, Granic M, Mueller D, Luksic I. Prognostic significance of extracapsular spread of lymph node metastasis from oral squamous cell carcinoma in the clinically negative neck. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;46(6):669–75.
Suzuki H, Beppu S, Hanai N, Hirakawa H, Hasegawa Y. Lymph node density predicts lung metastases in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;54(2):213–8.
Tabrizi R, Garajei A, Shafie E, Jamshidi S. Outcome of neoadjuvant chemotherapy on local recurrence and distant metastasis of oral squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective study. J Dent (Shiraz). 2016;17(3):207–12.
Takahashi H, Umeda M, Takahashi Y, Matsui T, Shigeta T, Minamikawa T, et al. Influence of preoperative dental procedures on the prognosis of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the gingiva. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;51(2):108–12.
Takahashi M, Aoki T, Nakamura N, Carreras J, Kajiwara H, Kumaki N, et al. Clinicopathological analysis of 502 patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma with special interest to distant metastasis. Tokai J Exp Clin Med. 2014;39(4):178–85.
Umeda M, Shigeta T, Takahashi H, Minamikawa T, Komatsubara H, Oguni A, et al. Clinical evaluation of Lugol's iodine staining in the treatment of stage I-II squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011;40(6):593–6.
Wang YK, Chuang YS, Wu TS, Lee KW, Wu CW, Wang HC, et al. Endoscopic screening for synchronous esophageal neoplasia among patients with incident head and neck cancer: prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes. Int J Cancer. 2017;141(10):1987–96.
Yang WE, Ho CC, Yang SF, Lin SH, Yeh KT, Lin CW, et al. Cathepsin B expression and the correlation with clinical aspects of oral squamous cell carcinoma. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3):e0152165. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152165.eCollection2016.
Liu F, Wang L, Pang S, Kan Q. Management of and risk factors for regional recurrence in upper lip squamous cell carcinoma. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(45):e8270.
Lock M, Cao JQ, D'Souza DP, Hammond JA, Karnas S, Lewis C, et al. Brachytherapy with permanent gold grain seeds for squamous cell carcinoma of the lip. Radiother Oncol. 2011;98(3):352–6.
Marsiglia H, Haie-Meder C, Sasso G, Mamelle G, Gerbaulet A. Brachytherapy for T1–T2 floor-of-the-mouth cancers: the Gustave-Roussy Institute experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002;52(5):1257–63.
Morselli P, Masciotra L, Pinto V, Zollino I, Brunelli G, Carinci F. Clinical parameters in T1N0M0 lower lip squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniofac Surg. 2007;18(5):1079–82.
Sessions DG, Spector GJ, Lenox J, Parriott S, Haughey B, Chao C, et al. Analysis of treatment results for floor-of-mouth cancer. Laryngoscope. 2000;110(10 Pt 1):1764–72.
Thanh Pham T, Cross S, Gebski V, Veness MJ. Squamous cell carcinoma of the lip in Australian patients: definitive radiotherapy is an efficacious option to surgery in select patients. Dermatol Surg. 2015;41(2):219–25.
Unsal AA, Unsal AB, Henn TE, Baredes S, Eloy JA. Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma of the lip: a population-based analysis. Laryngoscope. 2018;128(1):84–90.
Probert JC, Thompson RW, Bagshaw MA. Patterns of spread of distant metastases in head and neck cancer. Cancer. 1974;33(1):127–33.
Peltier LF, Thomas LB, Barclay TH, Kremen AJ. The incedence of distant metastases among patients dying with head and cancers. Surgery. 1951;30(5):827–33.
O'Brien PH, Carlson R, Steubner EA Jr, Staley CT. Distant metastases in epidermoid cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Cancer. 1971;27(2):304–7.
Merino OR, Lindberg RD, Fletcher GH. An analysis of distant metastases from squamous cell carcinoma of the upper respiratory and digestive tracts. Cancer. 1977;40(1):145–51.
Fang FM, Leung SW, Huang CC, Liu YT, Wang CJ, Chen HC, et al. Combined-modality therapy for squamous carcinoma of the buccal mucosa: treatment results and prognostic factors. Head Neck. 1997;19:506–12.
Lin CS, Jen YM, Cheng MF, Lin YS, Su WF, Hwang JM, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa: an aggressive cancer requiring multimodality treatment. Head Neck. 2006;28:150–7.
Liao CT, Wang HM, Ng SH, Yen TC, Lee LY, Hsueh C, et al. Good tumor control and survivals of squamous cell carci- noma of buccal mucosa treated with radical surgery with or without neck dissection in Taiwan. Oral Oncol. 2006;42:800–9.
Kuperman D, Auethavekiat V, Adkins DR, Nussenbaum B, Collins S, Boonchalermvichian C, et al. Squamous cell cancer of the head and neck with distant metastasis at presentation. Head Neck. 2011;33(5):714–8.
Troell RJ, Terris DJ. Detection of metastases from head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 1995;105:247–50.
Papac RJ. Distant metastases from head and neck cancer. Cancer. 1984;53:342–5.
Nishijima W, Takooda S, Tokita N, Takayama S, Sakura M. Analyses of distant metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck and lesions above the clavicle at autopsy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1993;119:65–8.
Bianchi B, Copelli C, Cocchi R, Ferrari S, Pederneschi N, Sesenna E. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of intraoral minor salivary glands. Oral Oncol. 2008;44(11):1026–31.
Copelli C, Bianchi B, Ferrari S, Ferri A, Sesenna E. Malignant tumors of intraoral minor salivary glands. Oral Oncol. 2008;44(7):658–63.
Ma DQ, Yu GY. Tumours of the minor salivary glands: a clinicopathologic study of 243 cases. Acta Otolaryngol. 1987;103(5–6):325–31.
Dubal PM, Unsal AA, Chung SY, Patel AV, Park RC, Baredes S, et al. Population-based trends in outcomes in adenoid cystic carcinoma of the oral cavity. Am J Otolaryngol. 2016;37(5):398–406.
Franchi A, Gallo O, Bocciolini C, Franchi L, Paglierani M, Santucci M. Reduced E-cadherin expression correlates with unfavorable prognosis in adenoid cystic carcinoma of salivary glands of the oral cavity. Am J Clin Pathol. 1999;111(1):43–50.
Gao M, Hao Y, Huang MX, Ma DQ, Luo HY, Gao Y, et al. Clinicopathological study of distant metastases of salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;42(8):923–8.
Horiuchi J, Shibuya H, Suzuki S, Takeda M, Takagi M. The role of radiotherapy in the management of adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13(8):1135–41.
Jenkins DW, Spaulding CA, Constable WC, Cantrell RW. Minor salivary gland tumors: the role of radiotherapy. Am J Otolaryngol. 1989;10(4):250–6.
Kuhel W, Goepfert H, Luna M, Wendt C, Wolf P. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the palate. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1992;118(3):243–7.
Lukši I, Suton P, Macan D, Dinjar K. Intraoral adenoid cystic carcinoma: is the presence of perineural invasion associated with the size of the primary tumour, local extension, surgical margins, distant metastases, and outcome? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;52(3):214–8.
Pogodzinski MS, Sabri AN, Lewis JE, Olsen KD. Retrospective study and review of polymorphous low-grade adenocarcinoma. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(12):2145–9.
Rapidis AD, Givalos N, Gakiopoulou H, Faratzis G, Stavrianos SD, Vilos GA, et al. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck. Clinicopathological analysis of 23 patients and review of the literature. Oral Oncol. 2005;41(3):328–35.
Shiiba M, Unozawa M, Higo M, Kouzu Y, Kasamatsu A, Sakamoto Y, et al. Controlling distant metastasis and surgical treatment are crucial for improving clinical outcome in uncommon head and neck malignancies, such as non-squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Clin Oncol. 2014;2(4):609–17.
Tincani AJ, Negro AD, Araújo PPC, Akashi HK, Martins AS, Altemani AM, et al. Management of salivary gland adenoid cystic carcinoma: institutional experience of a case series. Sao Paulo Med J. 2006;124(1):26–30.
Umeda M, Nishimatsu N, Yokoo S, Shibuya Y, Fujioka M, Komori T. The role of radiotherapy for patients with adenoid cystic carcinoma of the salivary gland. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;89(6):724–9.
Wang CC, Goodman M. Photon irradiation of unresectable carcinomas of salivary glands. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1991;21(3):569–76.
Yu T, Gao QH, Wang XY, Wen YM, Li LJ. Malignant sublingual gland tumors: a retrospective clinicopathologic study of 28 cases. Oncology. 2007;72(1–2):39–44.
Zdanowski R, Dias FL, Barbosa MM, Lima RA, Faria PA, Loyola AM, et al. Sublingual gland tumors: clinical, pathologic, and therapeutic analysis of 13 patients treated in a single institution. Head Neck. 2011;33(4):476–81.
Zushi Y, Noguchi K, Hashitani S, Sakurai K, Segawa E, Takaoka K, et al. Relations among expression of CXCR4, histological patterns, and metastatic potential in adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck. Int J Oncol. 2008;33(6):1133–9.
Matsuba HM, Spector GJ, Thawley SE, Simpson JR, Mauney M, Pikul FJ. Adenoid cystic salivary gland carcinoma. A histopathologic review of treatment failure patterns. Cancer. 1986;57(3):519–24.
Spiro RH. Distant metastasis in adenoid cystic carcinoma of salivary origin. Am J Surg. 1997;174(5):495–8.
Tarpley TM, Giansanti JS. Adenoid cystic carcinoma. Analysis of fifty oral cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1976;41(4):484–97.
Breik O, Sim F, Wong T, Nastri A, Iseli TA, Wiesenfeld D. Survival outcomes of mucosal melanoma in the head and neck: case series and review of current treatment guidelines. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;74(9):1859–71.
Jing G, Wu Y, Song H, Ren G, Wang R, Guo W. Primary malignant melanoma of the lip: a report of 48 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;73(11):2232–40.
Korabiowska M, Brinck U, Hoenig JF, Bartkowski SB, Mirecka J, Schauer A, et al. An application of MIB antibody to the retrospective study of melanomas of oral mucosa and facial skin. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 1994;120(6):365–8.
Lian B, Cui CL, Zhou L, Song X, Zhang XS, Wu D, et al. The natural history and patterns of metastases from mucosal melanoma: an analysis of 706 prospectively-followed patients. Ann Oncol. 2017;28(4):868–73.
Lourenço SV, Sanguëza AM, Sotto MN, Bologna SB, Giacomo TB, Buim ME, et al. Primary oral mucosal melanoma: a series of 35 new cases from South America. Am J Dermatopathol. 2009;31(4):323–30.
Song H, Wu Y, Ren G, Guo W, Wang L. Prognostic factors of oral mucosal melanoma: histopathological analysis in a retrospective cohort of 82 cases. Histopathology. 2015;67(4):548–56.
Tanaka N, Mimura M, Ogi K, Amagasa T. Primary malignant melanoma of the oral cavity: assessment of outcome from the clinical records of 35 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004;33(8):761–5.
Tas F, Keskin S. Mucosal melanoma in the head and neck region: different clinical features and same outcome to cutaneous melanoma. ISRN Dermatol. 2013;16(2013):586915. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/586915.
Umeda M, Komatsubara H, Shigeta T, Ojima Y, Minamikawa T, Shibuya Y, et al. Treatment and prognosis of malignant melanoma of the oral cavity: preoperative surgical procedure increases risk of distant metastasis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106(1):51–7.
Yang X, Ren GX, Zhang CP, Zhou GY, Hu YJ, Yang WJ, et al. Neck dissection and post-operative chemotherapy with dimethyl triazeno imidazole carboxamide and cisplatin protocol are useful for oral mucosal melanoma. BMC Cancer. 2010;11(10):623. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-10-623.
Abdul-Karim FW, Ayala AG, Chawla SP, Jing BS, Goepfert H. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of jaws. A clinicopathologic study of 11 cases. Cancer. 1985;56(7):1590–6.
Canadian Society of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Oncology Study Group. Osteogenic sarcoma of the mandible and maxilla: a Canadian review (1980–2000). J Otolaryngol. 2004;33(3):139–44.
Fernandez Sanroman J, Alonso del Hoyo JR, Diaz FJ, Gil-Diez JL, Monje F, Naval L, et al. Sarcomas of the head and neck. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1992;30(2):115–8.
Pandey M, Chandramohan K, Thomas G, Mathew A, Sebastian P, Somanathan T, et al. Soft tissue sarcoma of the head and neck region in adults. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;32(1):43–8.
Patel SG, Meyers P, Huvos AG, Wolden S, Singh B, Shaha AR, et al. Improved outcomes in patients with osteogenic sarcoma of the head and neck. Cancer. 2002;95(7):1495–503.
Russ JE, Jesse RH. Management of osteosarcoma of the maxilla and mandible. Am J Surg. 1980;140(4):572–6.
Sumida T, Otawa N, Kamata YU, Yamada T, Uchida K, Nakano H, et al. A Clinical Investigation of Oral Sarcomas at Multi-institutions Over the Past 30 Years. Anticancer Res. 2015;35(8):4551–5.
van Es RJJ, Keus RB, van der Waal I, Koole R, Vermey A. Osteosarcoma of the jaw bones. Long-term follow up of 48 cases. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1997;26(3):191–7.
Vencio EF, Reeve CM, Unni KK, Nascimento AG. Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma of the jaw bones: clinicopathologic study of 19 cases. Cancer. 1998;82(12):2350–5.
Guadagnolo BA, Zagars GK, Raymond AK, Benjami RS, Sturgis EM. Osteosarcoma of the Jaw/Craniofacial. Cancer. 2009;32:62–70.
Simpson JR, Matsuba HM, Thawley SE, Mauney M. Improved treatment of salivary adenocarcinomas: planned combined surgery and irradiation. Laryngoscope. 1986;96(8):904–7.
Gilbert MR, Sharma A, Schmitt NC, Johnson JT, Ferris RL, Duvvuri U, et al. A 20-year review of 75 cases of salivary duct carcinoma. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;142(5):489–95. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2015.3930.
Kane SV, Bagwan IN. Myoepithelial carcinoma of the salivary glands: a clinicopathologic study of 51 cases in a tertiary cancer center. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2010;136(7):702–12.
Smith VA, Camp ER, Lentsch EJ. Merkel cell carcinoma: identification of prognostic factors unique to tumors located in the head and neck based on analysis of SEER data. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(6):1283–90.
Regezi JA, Sciubba JJ, Jordan J. Oral pathology: clinical pathologic correlations. St. Louis: Elsevier/Sounders; 2012.
Mallya SM, Lam EWN. White and Pharoah's oral radiology. Principles and interpretation. St Louis: Elsevier; 2019.
Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumors. World Health Organization classification of tumors. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005.
Ellis GL, Auclair PL. Tumors of the Salivary Glands. AFIP atlas of tumor pathology: series 4. Washington: ARP Press; 2008.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Our work is free of conflict of interest and has no grant support.
Human and animal rights
Human participants and/or animals were not included.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Uchiyama, Y., Sasai, T., Nakatani, A. et al. Distant metastasis from oral cavity—correlation between histopathology results and primary site. Oral Radiol 37, 167–179 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11282-020-00440-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11282-020-00440-3