1 Introduction

The mining industry plays a vital role in global economic development, supplying essential materials for various sectors. However, mining activities have raised concerns due to their significant environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction, and greenhouse gas emissions (Aghababai Beni & Jabbari, 2022). To address these concerns, new technologies and regulations have emerged to minimize the industry's ecological footprint, such as remote sensing and GIS monitoring (Koon et al., 2023) and sustainable mining practices. Remediation techniques like phytoremediation and bioremediation have also gained attention (Aliyu et al., 2023). Amidst increasing mineral demand worldwide, sustainable and responsible mining practices have become paramount (Dembele et al., 2022). Lead and zinc contamination in soil near mining plants pose significant environmental and health risks due to their widespread use in various industries, including mining and metallurgy. Studies have consistently reported elevated lead and zinc levels in soil near mining sites (Adedeji et al., 2020). This soil contamination has far-reaching consequences, impacting soil quality and health (Richardson et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2022). The extent of contamination varies based on factors such as mining type, processing methods, and waste management (Y. Zhang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). Consequently, it is imperative to devise effective strategies for managing and remediating lead and zinc-contaminated soil to safeguard both human health and the environment (Durkalec et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2018). In addition to this, the other reason for choosing the issue of two heavy metal pollutants, lead and zinc, is that lead and zinc pollution can have serious economic consequences for the affected areas. For example, reduced agricultural production, increased healthcare costs, and decreased property values are among the possible consequences. Lead and zinc contamination can affect local communities. For example, people may be exposed to higher amounts of these substances and experience health problems.

Therefore, the risks associated with lead and zinc, the need for control measures and strategies to reduce pollution are very important. This review article can help to gather information and effective control methods.

In light of this context, this review embarks on a comprehensive exploration of lead and zinc soil contamination in proximity to mining industry plants. It delves into the origins and drivers of this contamination, its far-reaching environmental and health consequences, the arsenal of techniques available for monitoring and assessment, and the evolving strategies for mitigation and remediation. The novelty of this review lies in its synthesis of the most recent research and developments in this critical field, thereby accentuating the urgency of addressing this issue. By offering a structured, in-depth, and up-to-date analysis, we aspire to guide future research and action, ultimately steering mining practices towards sustainability and responsible stewardship of the environment.

The important implications of this study for society and the environment in this study are:

  • Impact on human health: One of the main importance of this study is the effects of water, air and soil pollution on human health. The study can help to better understand the chronic and acoustic effects of these pollutions on people's health.

  • Environmental protection: assessment and control of water, soil, and air pollution can help to protect and improve the environment of the region. These measures can help preserve biodiversity, protect water resources, and prevent pollution.

  • Sustainable resource management: This study can contribute to a more sustainable management of mineral and water resources in the region. This includes optimizing mineral extraction processes, water consumption, and pollutant management.

  • Economic impacts: Assessment and control of pollution can also examine economic impacts. This includes health costs, pollution control and treatment costs, and impacts on local industries.

  • Environmental mapping: The information collected in this study can be used to prepare environmental maps and make data-based decisions in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development.

  • Innovation and technological advancement: The study can lead to the development of new and innovative technologies to control and reduce pollution in industries related to lead and zinc.

  • Promoting the culture of environmental protection: Publishing the results of this study can help increase awareness in society and promote the culture of environmental protection and social responsibility.

2 Sources and Causes of Lead and Zinc Contamination

2.1 Mining Activities and Exploitation of Mines

The level of pollution varies depending on the type of mine, mining methods, and the characteristics of the ore body (Y. Zhang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). In addition, the age of the mine also affects the level of pollution, with older mines generally causing more pollution due to the accumulation of waste and the lack of modern environmental management practices (Munanku et al., 2023).

Figure 1 shows that mining activities and the chemical characteristics of the ore body can directly affect the type and volume of waste generated (Mwaanga et al., 2019). The use and effectiveness of pollution control measures can also directly affect the amount of waste generated and how it is disposed of (Sanga et al., 2023). The environmental conditions and weather patterns can influence the movement of contaminated soil and water and the effectiveness of pollution control measures. The proximity to other sources of contamination can also contribute to the overall contamination levels (Dold et al., 2009). The time and duration of mining operations can also significantly impact the level of soil contamination, as the longer the operations continue, the greater the potential for contamination (Chen et al., 2007). The network graph demonstrates the complex interactions between these factors and highlights the importance of considering multiple factors when mitigating soil contamination in mining operations.

Fig. 1
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Network graph illustrating the intricate interrelationships between various influential factors contributing to soil contamination in mining operations (Aghababai Beni & Jabbari, 2022; Beni & Esmaeili, 2020b)

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The amount of pollution generated by mining activities can be seen in Table 1, which summarizes the data from various studies on the concentration of lead and zinc in the soil around different mining sites. The table provides information on the levels of lead and zinc pollution, health and environmental impacts, and economic consequences associated with mining and smelting activities in various cities and countries. By comparing the data in Table 1, the effective factors impacting the level of soil contamination around lead and zinc mines and mining industries can be summarized as follows:

  • Type of mining method used: Open-pit mining causes more severe soil pollution than underground mining.

  • Type of mineral ore being extracted: Lead mining caused more soil pollution than zinc mining.

  • The age of the mine (Table 2): Older mines generally have accumulated more waste and have a higher likelihood of causing soil pollution than newer mines, which tend to have better environmental management practices.

  • The geographic location of the mining operation: Mining operations in arid regions tended to have higher soil pollution levels than those in mountainous regions due to the lack of vegetation and moisture in the former.

  • The type and amount of mining waste generated: Tailings and slag are the most common forms of waste.

  • Level of environmental management practices employed by mining companies: Proactive measures taken by mining companies and compliance with regulations.

Table 1 The amount of pollution produced by mining activities in different cities and the consequences of pollution
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Table 2 The impact of the mining age on the degree of soil pollution in surrounding areas across various cities
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2.2 Production and Processing Activities

Production and processing activities have been identified as a significant source of soil pollution with lead ions. Table 3 presents the potential of polluting the environment around the factories of different industries. Lead and zinc are heavy metals that are frequently found in contaminated soils near mining and smelting activities, where the metals are extracted and processed from ores for metal production (Sapkota et al., 2023). The waste rock and tailings generated during these activities can contain high concentrations of lead and zinc ions, which can contaminate the surrounding soil and waterways through various mechanisms such as leaching, erosion, and runoff (Li & Cai, 2021). Improper handling and disposal of lead and zinc-containing materials also contribute to soil contamination (Y. J. Li et al., 2022a, 2022c, 2022d). For instance, lead-acid batteries used in vehicles can release lead ions into the environment if not disposed of properly (Nodeh et al., 2023). Similarly, galvanizing and plating processes also produce waste materials that contain high levels of zinc and can contaminate soil and water if not managed appropriately (Aghababai Beni et al., 2021).

Table 3 Soil Contamination Levels with Lead and Zinc Ions in Proximity to Major Industrial Factories
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2.3 Waste Disposal and Management Practices

Table 4 illustrates several recent instances of soil contamination by lead and zinc ions resulting from heavy metal waste disposal. The results indicate a clear pattern of heavy metal contamination in soil due to improper waste disposal practices, with lead and zinc being the most commonly found contaminants. Electronic waste and mining waste are particularly problematic, with lead concentrations ranging from 2.01 \(\mathrm{mg }{\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}\) to 12000 \(\mathrm{mg }{\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}\) in different locations. The findings highlight the urgent need for stricter regulations and effective waste management practices to prevent soil contamination and its harmful effects on human health and the environment (Huynh et al., 2023).

Table 4 Concentration of contaminants in different types of waste in various locations
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2.4 Atmospheric Deposition

Lead and zinc are heavy metals that can be emitted into the atmosphere from various anthropogenic activities, such as mining, smelting, and combustion of fossil fuels. These metals can deposit onto soil surfaces through dry and wet deposition and accumulate over time, resulting in soil pollution (Liang et al., 2023; Shotyk et al., 2016). Several factors can affect atmospheric deposition and subsequent soil contamination with lead and zinc, including:

  • Industrial activities: Industrial processes such as smelting, mining, and refining can release lead and zinc into the air, leading to increased atmospheric deposition and soil contamination (Khan et al., 2023).

  • Transportation: Emissions from transportation, particularly from vehicles that burn leaded gasoline, can contribute to atmospheric deposition of lead and zinc (Chen et al., 2023; Peter et al., 2018).

  • Proximity to pollution sources: The closer a soil sample is to a pollution source, such as an industrial facility or a busy road, the higher the levels of lead and zinc deposition are likely to be (Filonchyk & Peterson, 2023; Wong et al., 2022).

  • Soil properties: Soil characteristics such as pH, organic matter content, and clay mineral content can affect the adsorption and mobility of lead and zinc in soil, which in turn can impact the extent of soil contamination (Li et al., 2024; M. Wang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d).

  • Climate and weather patterns: Atmospheric deposition can be affected by weather patterns, such as precipitation and wind direction, which can transport pollutants over long distances (Wong et al., 2023).

It is difficult to determine the exact percentage of each factor, as the contribution of each factor can vary depending on the specific location and circumstances. However, here is a rough estimate of the relative contribution of each factor in Fig. 2 (Green et al., 2022; Zhuk et al., 2022).

Fig. 2
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Approximate estimation of the relative contribution of various factors that can affect atmospheric deposition and subsequent soil contamination with lead and zinc (Haghighizadeh et al., 2023; Haghmohammadi et al., 2023)

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Table 5 provides data on pollutants emitted from industrial factory chimneys that result in the release of lead and zinc into the atmosphere in various cities and countries. Based on the data, it is evident that industrial activities such as lead and zinc smelting, zinc oxide production, lead smelting, zinc smelting, metal mining, waste incineration, and oil refineries have a significant impact on the environment. The pollution levels in the surrounding soil and smoke emissions from these activities are comparatively high and can have adverse effects on human health and the ecosystem. On the other hand, industries such as vehicle exhaust, nickel and copper mining, copper and gold mining, aluminum smelting, nickel smelting, and lead and zinc mining show relatively lower pollution levels. However, it is important to note that any form of pollution can have negative effects on the environment, and continuous efforts should be made to reduce pollution levels.

Table 5 Industrial Activities and Associated Pollutants in Factory Chimneys Across Various Countries and Cities
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3 Environmental and Health Effects of Lead and Zinc Contamination

3.1 Soil Pollution and Degradation

Soil pollution can adversely affect the health and productivity of soil ecosystems, including the soil microbial community, and can impair plant growth and development (Goswami et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2023). As shown in Fig. 3, soil fertility evaluation under the effect of soil contamination with lead and zinc can be done using various methods. Some of the commonly used methods are: Soil nutrient analysis (Muller & Muller, 2014), Soil pH measurement (Nabuyanda et al., 2022), Plant growth analysis (Y. Liu et al., 2023a, 2023b; Schwanke et al., 2022), Microbial analysis (X. Jiang et al., 2022a, 2022b).

Fig. 3
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Factors affecting soil fertility for plant growth under the influence of lead and zinc ions contamination in soil

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According to Table 6, the pH of the soil can be influenced by various factors, including the type of soil, the presence of organic matter, and the concentration of contaminants such as lead and zinc. Generally, soil pH tends to decrease (become more acidic) as the amount of lead and zinc contamination in soil increases. This is because lead and zinc can displace other cations, such as calcium and magnesium, that play a role in maintaining soil pH. When these cations are displaced, the pH of the soil can become more acidic. However, the extent of this pH change can also depend on the type of soil. For example, sandy soils tend to have a lower buffering capacity and are more susceptible to pH changes than clay soils. This means that the pH of sandy soils can change more quickly and drastically in response to changes in the concentration of contaminants such as lead and zinc.

Table 6 The effect of soil contamination with lead and zinc ions on soil pH changes in different types of soil from different regions
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3.2 Water Pollution and its Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems

Soils contaminated with lead and zinc can pollute water through a process known as leaching (Goswami et al., 2023). When it rains or when water is applied to the contaminated soil, the heavy metals can dissolve and move down through the soil, eventually reaching groundwater or surface water (Wolkersdorfer & Mugova, 2022). This can contaminate water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and streams. Once the heavy metals enter the aquatic ecosystem, they can accumulate in the tissues of fish and other aquatic organisms, which can be dangerous for the ecosystem (Sakaa et al., 2022).

Lead and zinc contamination poses a significant threat to aquatic organisms, impacting their health and growth. Lead exposure can lead to reduced fish reproduction, slower growth rates, and behavioral changes, while zinc can affect reproduction, growth, and weaken the immune systems of fish, making them more susceptible to diseases. The correlation between soil pollution with lead and zinc ions and water pollution around factories is evident in Table 7, showing a positive relationship where increased soil pollution corresponds to higher water pollution levels. This emphasizes the importance of addressing soil contamination to safeguard water quality and aquatic life.

Table 7 Information on the correlation between soil pollution with lead and zinc ions and water pollution around the factories
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3.3 Plant Uptake and Crop Contamination

Contamination of plants with lead and zinc typically occurs through the uptake of these metals by the plant roots from the contaminated soil (Usman et al., 2023). When the concentration of lead and zinc in the soil exceeds the safe limit, the roots of the plants absorb these metals along with water and essential nutrients (Lingrui Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b). Once inside the plant, these metals can accumulate in various plant tissues, including leaves, stems, and fruits, affecting plant growth, metabolism, and yield (Soltani et al., 2017). Additionally, metal-contaminated soil can also reduce the activity of soil microorganisms that help in nutrient cycling, leading to further plant stress and reduced growth (Liu et al., 2021). According to Table 8, the extent of plant contamination with lead and zinc depends on several factors, including the type of plant, duration and level of metal exposure, soil characteristics, and the presence of other contaminants in the soil.

Table 8 The effect of soil contamination with lead and zinc ions on plants in different periods of time
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The network model of the effect of soil contamination with lead and zinc ions on plants was presented in Fig. 4; These problems include:

  • Reduced growth and yield: Lead and zinc can negatively affect plant growth and development, leading to stunted growth and reduced crop yield (Li et al., 2022a, 2022c, 2022d; Zia-ur-Rehman et al., 2023).

  • Chlorosis: High levels of lead and zinc can cause chlorosis, a condition where the leaves of the plant turn yellow due to a lack of chlorophyll (Borah et al., 2023; QIN et al., 2020; Yotova et al., 2018).

  • Leaf necrosis: Leaf necrosis is another common symptom of lead and zinc toxicity (Guo et al., 2021; LI et al., 2022a, 2022c, 2022d). This condition is characterized by the death of leaf tissue, which can negatively affect plant growth and photosynthesis (Guo et al., 2021).

  • Reduced nutrient uptake: Lead and zinc can interfere with the uptake of essential nutrients, such as iron, magnesium, and calcium, leading to nutrient deficiencies in plants (Lingrui Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b; Mapodzeke et al., 2021; Zia-ur-Rehman et al., 2023).

  • Lowered photosynthesis: Lead and zinc can interfere with the photosynthetic process, leading to reduced energy production in plants (Li et al., 2022a, 2022c, 2022d; Liu et al., 2021; Y. Liu et al., 2023a, 2023b).

  • Increased susceptibility to pests and diseases: Plants that are exposed to lead and zinc contamination may be more susceptible to pest and disease attacks due to weakened defenses (Bundschuh et al., 2021; Timalsina et al., 2022).

  • Reduced growth and yield: Lead and zinc can negatively affect the growth and development of plants, leading to stunted growth and reduced yield (Soltani et al., 2017; Timalsina et al., 2022).

  • Interference with nutrient uptake: Lead and zinc can compete with other essential nutrients for uptake by plant roots, leading to nutrient deficiencies and other physiological disorders (Borah et al., 2023; Mapodzeke et al., 2021).

  • Damage to cell membranes: Lead and zinc can cause damage to the cell membranes of plants, leading to leakage of cell contents and reduced plant vitality (Ahmed et al., 2021; Lingrui Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b; Z. Zhang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Zia-ur-Rehman et al., 2023).

Fig. 4
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Network model of soil contamination with lead and zinc ions and its effects on plants

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3.4 Health Risks and Hazards Associated with Lead and Zinc Exposure

One example of a disease caused by soil contamination with lead and zinc is poisoning (Green et al., 2022; Markowitz, 2016). Table 9 presents some of the diseases caused by soil contamination with lead and zinc ions for humans. Long-term exposure to lead-contaminated soil can cause lead to accumulate in the body (Beni & Esmaeili, 2019), leading to a variety of health problems including anemia (Piai and Olympio, 2023), kidney damage (Pérez-Vázquez et al., 2021), neurological disorders (Chauhan et al., 2022), developmental delays in children (Laidlaw et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2020), and reproductive problems (Bundschuh et al., 2021). Zinc contamination can also have negative health effects, such as causing gastrointestinal issues (Luo et al., 2022) and impairing the immune system (Green et al., 2022).

Table 9 Environmental pollution and health effects in various countries
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3.5 Effects on Wildlife and Biodiversity

The impact of lead and zinc soil contamination on wildlife and biodiversity is a complex (Table 10) and multifaceted topic, and research in this area has highlighted several important topics that are worth considering, some of these topics are:

  • Direct toxicity effects: Lead and zinc are toxic to wildlife and can cause a range of health effects, including damage to the nervous system, digestive system, and reproductive system. For example, lead exposure in birds was associated with reduced egg production and hatching success (Durkalec et al., 2022).

  • Indirect effects on food webs: Lead and zinc contamination can also affect the food webs in which wildlife species are situated. For example, lead poisoning in predators can result from the ingestion of prey that have been exposed to lead (Green et al., 2022; Liang et al., 2023). Additionally, lead contamination can lead to a reduction in the abundance and diversity of invertebrates, which can have knock-on effects for higher trophic levels. For example, lead contamination in streams was associated with reduced invertebrate biomass and diversity, which in turn was associated with lower fish biomass (Thummala et al., 2022).

  • Habitat degradation: Lead and zinc contamination can also result in habitat degradation, which can have negative impacts on biodiversity. For example, lead and zinc contamination in soils was associated with reduced plant biomass and diversity (Y. Liu et al., 2023a, 2023b; Rajkumar et al., 2012).

  • Synergistic effects: Lead and zinc contamination can also interact with other stressors to produce synergistic effects. For example, lead exposure in birds was associated with increased susceptibility to avian malaria (Canavati et al., 2022; Mao et al., 2023; Ros-Tonen et al., 2021).

Table 10 Impacts of soil pollution on animal and plant species
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4 Monitoring and Assessment of Lead and Zinc Contamination in Soil

4.1 Sampling and Analytical Techniques

New techniques for monitoring and assessing lead and zinc contamination in soil have been developed, including extraction methods using magnetic nanoparticles (Lingrui Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b) and fractionation techniques (Soodan et al., 2014), and analytical techniques (Neo et al., 2022) such as spectroscopy (Milori et al., 2023) and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) (Ying Zhang et al., 2021a, 2021b). Non-destructive techniques like micro-X-ray fluorescence (µXRF) (Marafatto et al., 2021)and synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) (Castillo-Michel et al., 2017) can provide detailed information about the distribution of lead and zinc in soil samples at the microscale. Sampling techniques like random sampling, composite sampling, and grid sampling, along with analytical techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) (Aliyu et al., 2023), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Hien et al., 2022), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Marafatto et al., 2021), can accurately assess the extent and severity of contamination. Soil extraction using solvents can be analyzed using AAS or ICP-MS to determine contaminant concentration. Choosing appropriate techniques based on soil properties and contaminant types is crucial for effective monitoring and remediation; Table 11 summarizes various techniques for detecting and analyzing lead and zinc in soil samples.

Table 11 Summary of various techniques for detecting and analyzing lead and zinc in soil samples
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4.2 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing Techniques for Mapping and Monitoring

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing techniques are important tools for mapping and monitoring various environmental parameters (Wong et al., 2020b). GIS is a computer-based system that allows users to store, analyze, and display spatial data (Khan et al., 2022). It is used to manage large datasets with geospatial information, such as maps, satellite imagery, and terrain models (Nwazelibe et al., 2023). GIS can be used to model and analyze complex relationships between environmental factors and human activities (X. Li et al., 2022a, 2022c, 2022d). Table 12 provides a comparison between GIS and remote sensing techniques for mapping and monitoring of soils contaminated with lead and zinc ions. From the table, it can be concluded that both GIS and remote sensing techniques have advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of technique depends on the specific requirements of the study. While GIS is better suited for spatial analysis and data management, remote sensing techniques provide valuable information about the spectral properties of the contaminated soil.

Table 12 Comparison of GIS and remote sensing techniques for mapping and monitoring of soils contaminated with lead and zinc ion
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Remote sensing techniques are generally considered to be more accurate than GIS when it comes to data analysis. However, the use of remote sensing techniques requires specialized equipment and expertise, which may not be readily available to all researchers. On the other hand, GIS is more user-friendly and widely accessible, making it a more practical choice for many studies. The decision to use remote sensing or GIS will ultimately depend on factors such as the nature of the research, available resources, and the level of expertise of the researchers involved (Hakim et al., 2023).

5 Mitigation and Remediation Strategies for Lead and Zinc Contamination

5.1 Soil Remediation Techniques: Physical, Chemical, and bBiological Approaches

There are several solutions to treat soil contaminated with lead and zinc ions, which can be classified into physical, chemical, and biological methods. Table 13 provides information on the effectiveness of various treatments for the removal of lead and zinc ions from contaminated soil. Physical methods involve the removal of contaminated soil through excavation or dredging (Lin et al., 2022b), which is then disposed of in a controlled manner (Osten et al., 2023). This process is often costly and disruptive, but it can effectively remove contaminated soil (Aghababai Beni et al., 2021). Chemical methods involve the use of chemicals to immobilize or remove contaminants from the soil (Chi et al., 2022). One common technique is soil washing, where contaminated soil is treated with a solution that dissolves the contaminants, which are then separated from the soil (Shukla et al., 2022). Another technique is stabilization/solidification, where additives are mixed with the soil to bind the contaminants and prevent their migration (W. Li et al., 2019a, 2019b; Siyar et al., 2020). Electrokinetic remediation is also a chemical method that uses an electrical current to move the contaminants towards an electrode where they can be extracted (Xie et al., 2021).

Table 13 Comparison of different approaches and techniques for soil remediation
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Biological methods involve the use of living organisms or their byproducts to degrade or remove contaminants from the soil (Darroudi et al., 2018; Schulte et al., 2022). Bioremediation is a common technique that uses bacteria or fungi to break down contaminants into less harmful substances. Phytoremediation is another biological method that uses plants to absorb contaminants through their roots and store them in their tissues or transform them into less harmful substances (Steliga & Kluk, 2020; Xiao et al., 2021).

5.2 Phytoremediation and other Plant-based Approaches

Plant remediation, also known as phytoremediation, is a process that uses plants to remove contaminants from soil, water, or air (Sakaa et al., 2022). Plants used for remediation are selected based on their ability to accumulate heavy metals in their tissues without being affected by their toxicity (Enyoh & Isiuku, 2021; Huang et al., 2023). These plants are referred to as hyperaccumulators, and they can accumulate a large amount of heavy metals in their tissues without suffering from any adverse effects. Table 14 compares the phytoremediation process with different plants for the removal of heavy metals, lead and zinc ions from contaminated soil. Once the plant has accumulated a sufficient amount of heavy metals, it can be harvested and disposed of, effectively removing the contaminants from the soil (Borah et al., 2023). Phytoremediation is a promising method for the remediation of soils contaminated with lead and zinc ions, as it is a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and sustainable solution (Timalsina et al., 2022). However, it is important to note that the success of phytoremediation depends on several factors, including the type of contaminants, the soil properties, and the specific plant species used (Lingrui Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b). Therefore, careful selection of the plant species and proper site management are crucial for the successful implementation of phytoremediation (M. Li et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d).

Table 14 Comparison of various phytoremediation techniques for heavy metal remediation
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5.3 Human Health Protection and Risk Management Strategies

There are several strategies for protecting human health and managing the risks associated with soil contamination by lead and zinc. These strategies include:

  • Soil testing and analysis: Regular soil testing and analysis can help identify areas of soil contamination and determine the levels of lead and zinc present (Barhoum et al., 2023).

  • Land use management: Land use management practices, such as limiting access to contaminated areas, can help reduce exposure to contaminated soil (Cappucci et al., 2020; H. Yu et al., 2023a, 2023b).

  • Personal protective equipment: Individuals working in or around contaminated soil should wear appropriate PPE, such as gloves and masks, to reduce the risk of exposure (Q. Li et al., 2023a, 2023b).

  • Remediation: Soil remediation techniques, such as phytoremediation and soil washing, can be used to reduce the levels of lead and zinc in contaminated soil (Song et al., 2017).

  • Health monitoring: Regular health monitoring of individuals exposed to contaminated soil can help detect and manage any adverse health effects (P. Yu et al., 2023a, 2023b).

  • Education and outreach: Education and outreach programs can help raise awareness of the risks associated with soil contamination and promote safe practices for managing exposure (Z. Wang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d).

  • Regulatory measures: Government regulations and policies can help prevent soil contamination and ensure that contaminated areas are properly managed and remediated (Soni et al., 2022).

6 New Techniques and Approaches for Lead and Zinc Pollution Control

6.1 Innovative Appproaches for Mining Waste Management and Remediation

Mining waste management and remediation are critical aspects of sustainable mining practices. The management of mining waste involves several challenges, including the need to reduce the environmental impact of waste, minimize the risks to human health (Csavina et al., 2014) and the environment, and ensure the efficient use of resources (H. Li et al., 2023a, 2023b). Innovative approaches to mining waste management and remediation have emerged in recent years, driven by the need to address these challenges. As Table 15 presents, the approaches of mineral waste management in different countries, one of the most common innovative approaches to mining waste management is the beneficial use of waste (Bhatnagar et al., 2022). This approach involves finding new uses for mining waste, such as using coal ash as a substitute for cement in construction materials or using iron ore tailings in road construction. By finding new uses for waste, the amount of waste that needs to be stored or disposed of can be reduced, which can help to minimize the environmental impact of mining activities. Another innovative approach to mining waste management is the use of biological treatments (Mikula et al., 2021).

Table 15 Mineral waste management approaches in various countries
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This approach involves using living organisms, such as bacteria or fungi, to break down or remove contaminants from mining waste. For example, bioleaching is a biological treatment process used to extract metals from low-grade ores or mining waste. This approach can reduce the amount of waste that needs to be stored or disposed of and can help to minimize the environmental impact of mining activities.

Integrated waste management is another innovative approach to mining waste management (Cappucci et al., 2020). This approach involves the use of a combination of waste management strategies to minimize the environmental impact of mining activities. For example, the Canadian Dam Association (CDA) guidelines for mine tailings management promote the use of integrated waste management strategies that include the use of tailings ponds, the incorporation of dry-stack tailings technology, and the use of cemented paste backfill (Z. Wang et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d).

6.2 Green Chemistry and Sustainable Practices in the Mining Industry

Green chemistry and sustainable practices are becoming increasingly important in the mining industry as society demands more environmentally friendly processes and products (Soni et al., 2022). Green chemistry focuses on the design of chemical products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances (Milori et al., 2023). In the mining industry, this means reducing the use of toxic chemicals and finding alternative methods for processing minerals and waste. As shown in Fig. 5, some of the sustainable practices that are being implemented in the mining industry include:

  • Recycling and reuse: Many mining operations are implementing recycling programs to reduce waste and conserve resources (Lin et al., 2022b). For example, water can be treated and reused in mining operations to reduce the amount of fresh water required (Cappucci et al., 2020).

  • Energy efficiency: Mining operations are also implementing energy-efficient practices, such as using renewable energy sources like solar and wind power (Beni & Esmaeili, 2020a).

  • Clean technology: New technologies are being developed that reduce the use of toxic chemicals in the mining process. For example, bioreactors are being used to extract metals from ores, reducing the need for chemical leaching (Beni & Esmaeili, 2020b).

  • Responsible sourcing: Mining companies are also being held accountable for the impact of their operations on local communities and the environment (Parizanganeh et al., 2010). Many companies are implementing responsible sourcing practices to ensure that their products are ethically and sustainably sourced.

Fig. 5
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Graphical abstract of some sustainable practices that rely on green chemistry in the mining industry

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6.3 Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) can reduce lead and zinc soil pollution around mines through various approaches, including:

  • Predictive modeling: AI can be used to develop models that predict the likelihood of soil pollution based on factors such as geological characteristics, mining activities, and weather conditions (Gautam et al., 2023; Wong et al., 2021). These models can be used to identify areas that are most at risk of pollution, allowing for targeted monitoring and remediation efforts (Wong et al., 2020a).

  • Monitoring: AI-powered sensors and drones can be used to collect data on soil quality in real-time (Wong et al., 2021). This data can be analyzed using machine learning algorithms to identify patterns and anomalies, allowing for early detection of soil pollution and prompt remediation (Wang et al., 2019).

  • Optimization of remediation efforts: AI can be used to optimize the design and implementation of remediation strategies (Wong et al., 2021). Machine learning algorithms can analyze data on soil characteristics and the effectiveness of different remediation methods to identify the most effective approach for a particular site (Ji et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2020a).

The use of AI in lead and zinc pollution control can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of soil monitoring and remediation efforts, leading to more targeted and cost-effective solutions (Ji et al., 2023; Wong et al., 2021).

7 Conclusion and Future Directions

The mining industry significantly contributes to environmental pollution, particularly through lead and zinc contamination of soil. This contamination arises from mining activities, production, waste management, and atmospheric deposition, impacting soil, water, plants, wildlife, and human health. Effective monitoring and assessment are vital for understanding the issue and developing solutions. Traditional soil remediation methods have limitations, necessitating innovative pollution control approaches. Green chemistry and sustainable practices are increasingly adopted to minimize environmental impact in mining. Policymakers should implement stricter environmental regulations, better waste management, emission control, and enhanced monitoring. Increased research funding for pollution control and remediation methods is also crucial. Ultimately, managing lead and zinc contamination is essential for safeguarding human health and the environment.

For innovative research in the field of evaluation and control of soil, water, and air pollution around factories and industries related to lead and zinc, you can pay attention to the following to conduct innovative and effective research: Using new technologies such as artificial intelligence sensors, remote imaging, and the Internet of Things (IoT) to collect accurate and continuous data from contaminated areas and environments around factories. These data can help to better analyze pollution and provide innovative solutions. Using advanced modeling and artificial intelligence algorithms to predict pollution and provide optimal solutions for pollution control. These models can help make better decisions and make more accurate predictions. Research and development of advanced treatment technologies to remove contaminants from soil, water, and air. This can include nanomaterials, photocatalytic technologies, and biological treatment technologies. research on strategies to prevent future pollution in industries related to lead and zinc. This can include designing more efficient manufacturing systems and processes and less polluting materials. Actively interacting with local communities and sharing information with them. This can help raise public awareness and identify new issues. Collaborating researchers with different specialties including environmental science, environmental engineering, data science, and public health to create multidisciplinary approaches to tackling pollution. using renewable and clean energies instead of polluting energy sources in industries related to lead and zinc. This can help reduce air pollution associated with fossil fuels.