Introduction

Feedback, a core property in cybernetic systems, refers to data that moves from one system via its environment and back to that system (Martelaro and Ju 2018a; Stvilia et al. 2019). Other central concepts in cybernetics include equilibrium, disturbance, isomorphism, black box, constraint, transmission, homomorphism, and requisite difference (Chapman 2019; Mobus and Kalton 2015). Cybernetics has facilitated a better understanding of how things work across many disciplines and contributed tangibly to changes in the world. It has served as a platform that brings together mathematicians, biologists, engineers, anthropologists, sociologists, designers, and economists (Martelaro and Ju 2018b), facilitating discussion and exchanging ideas. With time, second-order cybernetics has become more important in science. Eventually, it evolved into a promising science and facilitated social action (Biggiero 2018). Cybernetic systems serve to control organizations and machines (Vahidi et al. 2019). Cybernetics is also used to generate “ideas for thinking” in any subject, such as how to think about philosophies and theories.

Contrarily, complexity is a phrase used to describe systems that make it difficult for us to understand their internal links. Self-organization follows laws that have been discovered by chaos theory. It appears that both structured dialogic design and the sciences of chaos/complexity have relevant things to say about social complexity, albeit from distinct perspectives. As far as feasible, Chaos/Complexity relies on observer-independent data to explain how complex systems change. They provide us with hints in this way, allowing us to intervene when systems are about to tilt. To determine the most desirable and effective ways to alter current circumstances, SDDP (SDDP is a prescriptive science) relies on observer-dependent data. (Bausch 2008). Additionally, in psychotherapy, we view behavior as crazy when we do not learn from experience. For example, when continuing down a specific path results in repeatedly failing to attain our goals, we may question our behavior (Glanville 2002). Also, Kyriazis (2017b) claimed that models based solely on discrete physical interventions are ineffective in managing the aging process. These interventions have all the drawbacks of a reductionist mindset, overlook emerging events, and fail to view the human body as a dynamic adaptive system. The experience suggests that aging can be eliminated from certain human groups (Kyriazis 2016), but this is impossible with bio-medical technologies or pharmaceutical interventions. Instead, aging must be eliminated after specific occurrences reliant on human evolution, the nature of natural laws, and the intensifying connection between humans and contemporary technology (Kyriazis 2017a).

On the other hand, the sharp development of institutions and the relations between them simplified by the Information Technology (IT) revolution makes the appreciation of such systems more possible at this moment (Chen & Kent, 2020; Jnr 2019; Robb 1989). Since academia, research communities, and industry study a problem that offers powerful solutions to the synergy between our three pillars of technology, science, systems engineering, human-machine, and cybernetics (Keating and Katina 2019; Tunstel 2018). Cybernetic defines phenomena in a traditional method and supplies us with prognostications about subsequent phenomena like other sciences: it does not supply an unparalleled or universal definition of all possible phenomena. Leaders can manage very correctly now, but they may take a novel viewpoint of their function to glance at this relevantly novel science. Cybernetics states that all social, biological, or mechanical systems share the same properties (Robb 1984). Also, the design of management information systems should consider organizational effectiveness problems (Ghosh et al. 2021; Gorichanaz 2019). For this purpose, it is argued that we need to understand the conditions internal to the organization that is limiting its learning and adaptation; that is, we need to understand the organization’s cybernetics (Espejo 1979). The objectives of cybernetics are learning and adjusting to the system requirements. Cybernetics is a diverse way of thinking about smart systems or systems that can operate against an aim. Thus, cybernetics prepare an effective framework for augmenting designers in creating human-centered interactive artificial intelligence-enabled products (Martelaro and Ju 2018a). In this section, we examine the motivation and goals of the research.

What is the motivation for research?

We mainly discuss the limitations of some previously published articles due to the literature gap derived from conducting this work.

Andrew (2005) examined cybernetics systems on the Web. His study aimed to examine growths on the Internet. Particularly those that are of public interest in cybernetics. One part of the article that has a hoax paper is discussed in general, with the implications of the article being judged and published. Many sources of data on nanotechnology have been reviewed. These sources have applications in medicine. He found that a hoax paper was admitted, which casts doubt on the procedure of review. However, the condition is not explicit. Also, the utility of mammoth conferences was asked. It proved that nanotechnology is poised for basic developments. A convincing hoax paper’s generation has been absorbing technical prosperity in itself.

Rudall (2005) reviewed running inventions in neuron/silicon chips’ progress and in biomimetics. This review chose from a universal database and considered this research and progressing inventions. An extended summary, chosen study checking, and progressive topics showed the Trans and multi-corrective relevancies of systems and cybernetics. It attained to further study and progressive activity.

Andrew (2005) examined the systems and cybernetics on the Web. He examined advice on combating spyware and other malware forms. It also talked about silencing the computer during operation and turning it off during use. His aim was to review progress on the Internet, mainly those of public cybernetics concerns. He found that some of the expansions reported have study value, while others touch experimental sights of computer utilization and internet accessibility.

Choices from subjects studied the CybCom list over a specially dynamic term in early 2006 were reviewed by Andrew (2006). He determined autopoiesis communication to sociology and instruction courses on cybernetics. Cybernetics appealed to social theory, the “ethical imperative” of von Foerster, and günther’s “polylogic.” His aim was to review the progress on the Internet, mainly those of public cybernetics concerns. He found that the connection of autopoiesis to sociology was doubtful. Also, he found that different instruction courses were available, but cyberneticists have to try to elevate visibility, and data flowing in social systems had beneficial communications to those in living organisms.

Andrew (2013) examined the systems and cybernetics on the Web, “wet” neurophysiology, CYBCOM list subjects, and carbon calculation. He aimed to review progress on the Internet, mainly those of public cybernetics concerns. He found that the list of CYBCOM remains precious, despite the unlucky description for “wet” neurophysiology. The exception suggested that nervous terminals should not be recognized as transducers. A case of nerve plasticity was also discussed, depending on the utilization of stem cells. Significant advances in computing technology were reported. This improvement was due to the use of carbon nanotubes as an alternation for silicon.

The new progress in cybernetics, from recognition to social systems, was examined by Umpleby, Medvedeva, and Lepskiy (2019). A team of researchers in Europe and the United States had done much research into cybernetics. It was an effort to increase the science concept. So this science can be more successful in the social sciences. Umpleby et al. (2019) explained a lot about this effort. Additionally, the paper indicated Russia’s endeavor to produce reflexiveness theory into a universal theory of deliberate, self-progressive systems. Comprehension of eastern and western strategies to cybernetics was hard due to the diverse histories and rational customs of cybernetics in Russia and the United States. The paper concluded by comparing the features of two approaches to cybernetics. These diversities showed enormous potential for western and Russian scientists’ opinions to enrich further cybernetics improvement and scientific progress in the west and the east.

According to the review of articles in this section, we observe that various subjects in this field are developments on the Internet, development of neuron/silicon chips and biomimetics, combating spyware, recent developments in cybernetics, and scientific trends cybernetics, and the underpinning rules. However, there have been few reviews on this topic. While review summaries are more critical for a helpful review, these studies did not indicate a perfect review of the cybernetics systems to analyze their taxonomy and future challenges. A summary of the reviewed research and its basic features are provided in Table1. The investigated papers’ weak point is that most papers do not contain rational ranking and open issues. Additionally, comparing articles and analyzing them in detail are other significant weak points. So, we have been try to solve the problems mentioned above and prepare an up-to-date review paper that is analytical in this field for the rest of this article.

Table 1 Comparison of the considered papers about cybernetics systems
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What is the purpose of this article?

We may want to ask to what extent the past progress in cybernetics has assisted knowledge leadership. However, comprehensive and systematic study in this field is very rare despite the importance of managing cybernetics systems. Thus, this article aims to examine the role of cybernetics systems mechanisms in Knowledge Management (KM) and define the types of essential challenges. Briefly, the objectives of the paper are:

  • Suggesting methodical and systematic review of cybernetics systems;

  • Suggesting an inductive summary of the selected article;

  • Looking for some basic questions in this domain and indicate the guidelines to encounter the available challenges;

  • To outline the important areas where the cybernetics mechanisms can be applied.

Finally, the structure of the article is as follows. The next section examines the research background and motivation of this study. Section3 considers the article choosing procedure. In Sect.4, the selected article is reviewed. Section5 discusses open discussion and research issues. Also, we have ended the article in the last section.

Methodology

Since article reviewing via Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is impartial, replicable, fair, systematic, complete, and transparent, it is the first choice to review the related papers in a specific area (de Araújo Lima, Crema, & Verbano, 2020; Heidari and Navimipour 2021). Also, it can detect and synthesize all the evidence of adequate quality relating to a particular topic (Ermel, Lacerda, Morandi, & Gauss, 2021; Mostafaie et al. 2020). The best accessible information for doctors may come from systematic reviews and meta-analyses of relevant studies (Esmailiyan et al., 2021; Vahdat 2021; Zadeh, Bokov, Yasin, Vahdat, & Abbasalizad-Farhangi, 2021). This section refers to the SLR considering current research on cybernetics systems.

Step1. Research questions

The creation of a primary research topic as part of the research procedure is the first stage in carrying out a systematic review (Doewes et al., 2022; Torgerson 2003). Creating a research procedure will enable the creation of the review’s questions and techniques before the literature search (Vahdat and Shahidi 2020). As a result, bias is reduced. A well-thought-out process and well-crafted research topic improve the review’s efficiency by reducing the time and expense required to find and acquire pertinent material. This research aims at addressing the following research questions:

  • RQ1: What is the definition of cybernetics systems?

  • RQ2: What is the importance of cybernetics systems?

  • RQ3: What are the main features of the cybernetics systems mechanism?

Step2. The research protocol and paper selection process

The research protocol is created when the research question has been established. To reduce bias before beginning the literature search, the techniques for literature searching, filtering, data extraction, and analysis should be documented in a written document. It is essential to establish strict inclusion and exclusion standards for studies. This step focuses on experimental design. The search was conducted in two major databases: the Web of Science and Scopus to discover the proper papers standing on some clues, including “cybernetics systems”, “cybernetics management systems”, and “cybernetics knowledge management systems”. These were picked because they offer easy access to the primary citation databases worldwide and include clever tools for monitoring, analyzing, and visualizing research (Gauss, Lacerda, & Cauchick Miguel, 2021). Additionally, from 1900, they cover more than 21,000 titles and more than 73million records of research output in engineering, computer science, natural sciences, and materials sciences. Besides that, to ensure the quality of the primary studies, only articles published in peer-reviewed international journals have been considered. The language was therefore employed as an inclusion criterion. (Matthews 2021). 1821 papers from journals, conferences, books, etc. have been located as of this point (see Figs.1 and 2). As shown in Figs.1 and 87% of printed papers were published until 2011, and only 13% of articles were published from 2012 to 2019. Additionally, we found that most publications in the IEEE with 22%, as well as the Emerald with 5% in Fig.2. It suggests that over time, the researchers’ attention to research in this field has diminished.

Fig. 1
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Percentage of published articles based on years

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Fig. 2
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Published papers standing on database sources in percentage

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Step3. Quality appraisal

The evaluation of the included studies’ quality is a crucial stage in a systematic review. To help with this process, a number of quality measures and checklists have been created. Overall rankings, however, might not adequately reveal the specific advantages and disadvantages of the investigations. A few requirements are included at this level to guarantee that only qualified diffusions are selected. This stage involved the removal of condition reports, application papers, editorial remarks, review papers, citations, and non-English documents. 1784 articles have been deleted in this filter.

Data extraction, synthesis, reporting, and dissemination

Data analysis and study outcomes should be conducted after incorporating and omitting research depending on the quality assessment. This procedure begins with a straightforward descriptive assessment of each study (Egger, Smith, & Altman, 2008). To confirm the importance of the paper, they are examined carefully. The subject, the classification of journals, and the year of publication are essential to determine whether to exclude or include the papers. Relevant papers are chosen after using these filters. Then they are published by 10 famous publishers. Figure3 shows an abstract of the selecting articles procedure. Therefore, 12 papers are excluded. Finally, 25 papers have remained. These remaining papers are separated into 7 parts. Also, Table2 shows the details of the selected articles.

Fig. 3
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The paper selection process in each category

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Table 2 The details of the selected articles
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Background and Review the Selected Work

Wiener (1948) invented the word cybernetics when world war II was finishing. A range of novel phenomena appeared to be adaptive, intricate, and independent and divided into a circular form of organization. In the past years, forms like these forms contain a lengthy background (Krippendorff 2019). Complex problems have become joined with the soft sciences’ hard competence by the mediating role of cybernetics. Therefore, the three theories of entropy retardation, regulation, and computation constitute an interlaced conceptual network: the cybernetics nature (Schandorf and Schandorf 2019). ”There is not legislation without communication; there is no aim without legislation; and the meaning of “system” or “society” becomes invalid without an aim (Von Foerster 2003). Considering the managerial principle, markets’ economic reality has inflicted numerous leadership issues and targets upon leaders. Managerial preparation must contain advanced environmental assessment and prognostication of competitors’ reflex to an impressive primary action by the institution (Oliva and Kotabe 2019). A significant philosophical incitement has been prepared by cybernetics concepts in the endeavor of leading scientists trying to extract organizational objectives in conditions specified by monopolistic competition. Therefore, cybernetics has transformed some philosophical contributions to leadership in the region’s target creation and relevant procedures (Zannetos and Wilcox 1969).

New progress in biomedical cybernetics permitted understanding of Anticipatory Learning Systems (ALS) as an instrument for prosperous security leadership, maximizing ultimate results, and minimizing environmental disorder (Letiche 2019). Therefore, the implantable human medical set can collaborate with biological peers without host destruction (Fiorini and Santacroce 2013). On the other side, plenty of employees in biological sciences (psychologists, physiologists, and sociologists) are concerned about cybernetics. They would have regard for utilizing its procedures and methods to their proficiency. Despite this, they might not contain a high amount of information on the way of utilizing cybernetics. Managerial function in trading establishment contains arranging and controlling perspectives. On the whole, the literature summary has illustrated that management is a complicated task. Various researches have illustrated that holding a reductionist sight is not adequate for executing alterations more expeditiously. A more comprehensive method should be discovered that particularly allows cooperation, connection, and control, and can manage high volatility in the work method and be pliable adequate for reacting to better impressions. So, the scheme and control of complicated and active systems as a fundamental administration issue is an outlook of the system-oriented administration viewpoint. Cybernetics supplies the foundation as a systemic method to do so (Schwaninger 2004). At last, available systems pattern obtained from administration cybernetics has been thought out as the most suitable method to meet such cooperations and connection problems (Elezi, Maier, & Lindemann, 2013). In the continuation of this section, authors have divided the essential factors of cybernetics into 7 segments historical evolution of cybernetics systems, system dynamics, dialogic design science, complexity theory, Dialogic design science, Artificial Intelligence (AI), cybernetics, and management optimization (See Fig.4), and we have collected their key points.

Fig. 4
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Categorization of cybernetics systems

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Historical Evolution of Cybernetics Systems

Systemics and cybernetics can be seen as a growing and far from stabilized metalanguage of concepts and models for transdisciplinary usage (François 1999). In this section, the articles that studied the historical development of cybernetics systems have been analyzed.

Majumder (1979) studied cybernetics and general systems. He categorized cybernetics into four courses. The historical perspective of the emergence of cybernetics as the role of control science, communication, and computation in machines and living tissues, and integrated and complex man-machine systems as a unitary discipline of general systems theory was presented. In the second section, both the public systems and cybernetics theories showed to be the same in necessities, motivation, characteristics, attributes, and behavior. The third section establishes cybernetics systems like limited state machines as a subclass of general dynamical systems. The last section presented cybernetic systems as a universal theory containing social activities to understand technical and ethical applications. His study provided comprehensive information on the history of cybernetics. However, this study is very old.

Umpleby (1997) examined the cybernetics of conceptual systems. They identified three courses that cybernetics evolved. The first stage of cybernetics captured an experimental approach to the nervous system; the second stage of cybernetics developed a philosophy standing on physiological neuroscience research discoveries. In the third stage, the cybernetics of perceptual systems stares at the association that makes and maintains opinions and that community member’s motivations.

Umpleby and Dent (1999) discussed the books, people, conferences, and technology that impacted the systems movement. General systems theory, the systems approach, operations research, system dynamics, learning organizations, total quality management, and cybernetics were the schools of thought that were discussed. Total quality management was a recent addition to the list, but because of how extensively it uses systems concepts, they believe it fits. The topics of complexity theory, family therapy, and artificial intelligence are not covered in this essay.

Vallee (2003) investigated cybernetics and systems from the past to the future. He discussed the originators of systems and cybernetics among them. Some forerunners uttered from archaism to the 20th century. The actor and the observer’s tasks were emphasized. He considered the future in three directions: epistemology and praxeology improvement, the role of requisite diversity in the survival of humankind, and man and machine symbiosis.

Vahidi, Aliahmad, et al. (2019) investigated VSM recorded and late research patterns. This paper examined presenting and creating a verifiable pattern of this model. At that time, the 1000 most significant works based on Google Scholar rank were reviewed to investigate late dissemination trends. Here, Beer introduced the VSM operating model. Reviewing the top 1000 cited publications shows that this topic has reached maturity and that further growth is generally ongoing.

In this section, the authors analyzed 5 articles on the evolution of cybernetics systems. As we have seen, various researchers have each grouped the development of cybernetics systems from different perspectives. In Table2, the authors summarized the most important goals of the relevant articles.

System Dynamics

Recent advances in the study of non-linear, dynamic systems, as described in complexity science, suggest to a solution for the dualistic nature of classical models. In this section, the articles that studied the system dynamics have been analyzed.

A theoretical model of the firm, based on cybernetics, was proposed by Scala et al. (2006) construction. The proposed model related adjustability to the cybernetics idea of difference and analyzed a dynamic system in aspects of its work configuration. The proposed model was helpful in dispersing some wrong ideas about adjustability and offering functional perceptions about problems of flexible construction structures. Their paper presented a way through which discrepancy can be quantified. They found that the required adjustability at a node is not steady; instead, it depends on the relation with other nodes. Furthermore, often diminishing difference was a better solution compared to increased difference management. The firm’s hypothetical model can easily explain the abnormal finding that can be almost adjustable comparatively in adjustable nodes in mixing.

Vahidi and Aliahmadi (2019) developed a framework based on the VSM and the System Dynamics (SD) that dynamizes and simulates VSM. This study developed a novel multi-methodological approach built on VSM and SD. In this setting, both a dynamic model that maintains knowledge across the organization and a broad SD framework that simulates organizational problem-solving have emerged. An examination of the VSM literature revealed that such dynamic, knowledge-based corporate design and diagnosis methodologies were in demand. The multi-methodological approach created allowed for creating dynamic complexity handling structures and the processes that go along with them in any organization. This study’s conclusion offered a more appropriate and thorough method since it dynamizes VSM and addresses both the SD and VSM’s limitations. After that, a management consulting firm used a multi-method approach, presenting the findings. The results of applying the multi-methodology and recommended policy show improved organizational problem-solving skills in terms of speed and manageability.

Complexity Theory

With society becoming increasingly complex, managers in business and policy must understand the distinction between complicated challenges (like sending a man to the moon or constructing a power plant) and complex problems (such as raising a child). Everything is interconnected in complex problems, so rather than calling for straightforward, linear top-down solutions that can be developed with great expertise, complex problems call for more subtle, more “complex” approaches in which involved stakeholders can engage themselves creatively and collectively (with all their expertise and good-will) to optimize the evolution of the “problem” in the desired direction. Complex challenges call for integrated strategies that allow for flexibility rather than turning to final structures and outcomes that can be entirely damaging for some stakeholders (Nijs, 2014). Complexity is primarily an issue of interpretation, particularly in the social sciences, and not just a calculation problem (modeling). This results from the advent of postmodern viewpoints in the social sciences at this particular historical juncture. (Kuhn 2002). Interpreting complexity only as offering new metaphors for seeing the world differently ‘carries with it the ghost of old ways of thinking’ (Liapakis et al. 2008). Metaphors just scratch the surface of complexity, especially in the humanities and social sciences. Several articles that investigated the complexity theory have been examined in this area.

In considering the applications of the sciences of complexity, such as first-order cybernetics and general systems theory (and to a much lesser extent, second-order cybernetics), to social research, Kuhn (2002) was concerned about the assumptions held regarding the knowledge generated. Additionally, he was concerned in how these frameworks make us perceive ourselves as knowledge producers (or attract). His study raises concerns about how these cybernetic frameworks are approached and what that means for humanness. Additionally, the potential for complexity theory to promote intellectual acuity, sincerity, and humility by emphasizing uncertainty and the illusory nature of truth is discussed.

Hipel et al. (2007) considered several areas of significant usage that will have systems have become more and more elaborate. Any critical system is needed to get the subsequent result or performance using proper criteria. Products and facilities become more individualized and changing environments. The proposed model re-elucidated the Stafford beer viable system model and made 27.

Kandjani et al. (2013) offered a joint-development path model using cybernetics rules to investigate and plot how organizations handle complicacy about environmental changes. Cybernetics reflection incorporated a ‘path of joint-development for defining businesses’ co-evolution with their use of Conant and Ashby’s theory of “proper regulator,“ explaining the way of mixing different hypotheses of complicacy handling in a cybernetics hypothesis of business architecture which gives information about the processing of methods for preserving correspondence between the development of the business as a system and its environment development. The proposed model showed that creating complete models of large-scale, intricate systems or the environment is not likely, and used them to control the system completely.

Mobus and Kalton (2015) investigated basic cybernetics and control theory. They offered an examination of problems related to information because it is applied in systems and handling of systems. They also investigated how intricate systems have intricate regulatory sub-systems that unbelievably create a series of special control or handling purposes. The sub-systems process information to handle the system’s material procedures and set the system responses due to the environment. They found that they could only make forward deductions based on viewing the apparition and development pattern many times before in lower levels of an organization.

Dialogic Design Science

The Warfield group (Warfield 1973, 1976; Warfield and Cárdenas 1994) is credited for the inception of Generic Design Science (Warfield, 1994), which led to the development of a methodology called Interactive Management (IM). IM was grounded on previous concepts from Systems Engineering (Sage 1977). Early 1970s policy and planning, as well as transportation planning and urban budget planning in the Dayton City Council, were the first “real-world” uses. (Fitz and Troha 1977). The Agoras Group expanded the theory and the practice, also renaming the methodology to Structured Democratic Dialogue Process (SDDP; for details and description (Christakis & Bausch, 2006; Flanagan & Christakis, 2010; Laouris 2012).

Cisneros et al. (2013) provided a holistic perspective for comprehending the Web from the perspective of the Global Challenges described by the team of the Millennium Project. Other systemic properties of the Web can be worked with the holistic approach from different angles, such as the proper functions of the Web’s sub-systems or their collateral (non-intended) effects. The methodology employed is reproducible in its fundamental procedures. A systematic dialogic approach, which promotes boundary-spanning processes, collective intelligence, intra-, multi-, and trans-discipline viewpoints, and the creation of progressive and more encompassing discoveries, could, however, augment it. Additionally, many current events compel us to keep thinking about the Web and our interventions on it. However, the prospect of a workable global strategy gives people hope for new approaches to harmonizing sub-systems with the web and its environment and evolutionary process. Their current study’s primary goal was to map out a trajectory for advancement toward sustainability. Another trajectory arc is testing the outcomes after putting Actions into practice.

In 1997, Gerard de Zeeuw coined “Third Phase Science.“ An effective way to apply third-phase science to comprehend and respond to complicated social problems is illustrated by the deliberative approach known as dialogic design science. Bausch and Flanagan (2013) explained De Zeeuw’s concept in non-specialist language and expanded on the historical context of third-phase science to address current needs. It demonstrated how dialogic design science transforms third-phase science into an essential design methodology and completes it as an axiomatic science. It should be underlined that third-phase science is not the foundation of dialogic design science. It was developed as a philosophy and a process for creating sound designs in challenging circumstances. Building on common sense and systems science principles, a methodology was proposed. Through practice under challenging circumstances, it was examined and enhanced. The language of mathematical reasoning and the language of common social interactions are visibly combined in interactive management. It lists actions that can be taken to reduce the barriers to democratic design.

Kyriazis (2017b) discussed some of the shortcomings of a reductionist view of research to find treatments against aging degeneration. He outlined three areas where potential primary age-related degeneration treatments could face harsh criticism. He suggested that if theories for managing to age are based solely on discrete physical interventions, they cannot be effective. These interventions have all the drawbacks of a reductionist mindset, overlook emerging events, and fail to view the human body as a dynamic adaptive system. The experience suggested that aging can be reversed in some human populations, but this cannot be done through scientific or pharmaceutical interventions. Instead, aging must be eliminated after a series of events based on human evolution, the nature of natural laws, and human engagement with contemporary technology.

In sum, hundreds of SDD processes grounded on the principles of cybernetics have been implemented worldwide over the past 3–4 decades. The applications addressed diverse socio-technical complex problems. Notable applications’ domains include significant Global Challenges faced by humanity at the dawn of the new millennium (R. T. Cisneros & Hisijara, 2013; Glenn, Gordon, & Florescu, 2009), sustainability (Ferri et al., 2018), vision building in tribal communities (Broome 1995) conflict resolution (Broome 1997, 2004; Laouris, Erel, et al., 2009; Laouris and Laouri 2008; Laouris, Michaelides, et al., 2009), the importance of access to broadband technologies (Laouris 2015; Laouris et al. 2008, 2017; Laouris and Laouri 2008; Laouris and Michaelides 2007). The SDD methodology has recently been admitted to the weaponry of Operations Research as a promising (complex) Problem Structuring Method (Laouris and Michaelides 2018).

Artificial Intelligence

The use of a computer to simulate intelligent behavior with little to no human involvement is known as artificial intelligence (AI). The development of robots is widely regarded as the beginning of artificial intelligence. The word “robot” comes from the Czech word “robota,“ which refers to bio-engineered devices used for forced labor. In 1956, artificial intelligence (AI), also known as machine learning, was formally introduced. The word covers a wide range of medical concepts, including human biology, robotics, medical diagnosis, medical statistics, and cybernetics systems, as well as today’s “omics.“ (Hamet and Tremblay 2017). The articles that examined AI have been reviewed in this section.

Negoita (2009) studied fuzzy systems and cybernetics. His purpose stimulated thinking and talk about postmodernism and its less known roots. He addressed the relation between postmodernism and the evolution of incoherent sets theory in the 1970s. He showed how cybernetics, with the managership of Dr. J Rose, has the first worldwide magazine to receive articles in this new field. His paper caught the attention of individual recollection and abstract of 30 years of fuzzy systems topic.

Seising (2010) reviewed the relation in these areas, which showed the impacts of cybernetics, systems theory, and information in the 1950s and fuzzy sets and systems theory. He focused on non-specialized but philosophical features of information theory. He showed some useful ideas of weaver regarding semiological thinking. He advocated a “fuzzy information theory,“ which should be proper for including a “semiotic concept of information.“ Finally, he presented methodological thoughts in historical aspects about the notion of “information” as a “constantly changing object,“ which they have chosen as a fuzzy notion. He showed that the idea of information changed throughout the history of communication technology and its methodological practice in the 20th century.

Martelaro and Ju (2018a) investigated the cybernetics and user experience scheme of AI systems. Their research results indicated that even though cybernetics reflection has roots in the past, they have believed that it may be the design solution, mainly because their products increasingly manifest types of intelligence. One merging pattern from their conversation was incorporating cybernetics reflection into the design process and tools. They believed they needed to design meta-systems capable of creating the product’s interactivities. It proposed a requirement for new tooling to develop these meta-systems. They discussed that more designers should be aware of cybernetics. More importantly, developing design tools must improve their tools with feedback systems that can support designers both in terms of the design project available and the design process.

Cybernetics

Physiologists, psychologists, and sociologists are among the many biological scientists interested in cybernetics and would like to use its methodologies and approaches in their field (Ashby, 1957). In this section, 5 articles that studied cybernetics have been analyzed.

Rosenblueth (1981) discussed subjectivity, cybernetics, and system roles. He focused on two important facets of cybernetics and the theory of systems: likelihood and making decisions. Taking decisions was about two points of view: decision measure and procedure. He found that outside of subatomic events, there is no space for talking about the likelihood and features of things, such as duration and mass.

Scott (2000) reviewed the suggestion of (Stewart) regarding the worldview of cybernetics, in which by adding the third field, that is, “disparities valued by the viewer,“ one has been bounded to two ontological fields regarding “energy” and “information.“ A connection is suggested among Stewart’s suggestions and primitivistic methodology of subsequent cybernetics that create this necessity for the viewer to accept the duty for the world that he/she is making, like resolutions regarding opinions and goals. Furthermore, he offered a type of “knowledge” as a system of opinions. He concluded that cybernetics could help develop academic systems and contribute to subsequent automatic recognition as a central part of program content.

Dunbar-Hester (2010) studied the actual way that artists used cybernetics. He examined relations between cybernetics and hypothetical music from 1950 to 1980, testing time with electronic methods in recording, combining, changing, and producing sounds. Examples were instrument builders, engineers, musicians, composers, and investigators with the cooperation of musicians who used cybernetics themes in their works. These cybernetics’ uses were more different compared to the cybernetics that the scientists suggest, which creates a problem in speaking about cybernetics as a heterogeneous or large discourse. Especially, cybernetics discourse in music usually showed subjects of nakedness and indeterminateness instead of “command and control” of the “closed world.“

White (2012) investigated the usage of cybernetics notions in issue description, which is usually regarded as a project that is the most critical and challenging phase. He discussed cybernetics opinions about modeling and cybernetics notional models. These were inferential models that can be a response to incentive or goal-driven. Five cybernetics rules were detected, explaining the kinetics of LAS systems and issues regarding the development of LSA systems, which save LAS from disorder. These rules were related to dedicated modeling and detecting all likely behaviors and discrepancies necessary for regulation, response, and postponement. The soft systems methodology, a goal-driven inferential notional structure incorporating a restricted set of cybernetics rules, defines the LAS development. If a single supervisory mechanism were made better with cybernetics rules suggested in his article, it would be more effective. Adding cybernetics rules can result in making current problem definition methods more effective.

Fay et al. (2019) designed cybernetics and a transactional vision, a coping-based viewpoint, and stress to suggest contrasting influences of stressors on creative execution. They indicated that work requirements positively impact creation execution, while role-based stressors negatively affect it. They conducted survey-based, time-lagged research in the health care part from 235 nurses in the United Kingdom. The execution of novelty was evaluated two years after the examination of stressors. To support their ideas, work requirements were affirmatively relevant to the future execution of novelty, while obscurity of the role and appropriate agreement were negatively relevant to the next innovation execution. Together, they examined the organization’s obligation as a mediator, but there was just sectional aid for mediation. To evaluate the finding’s generalizability, they repeated the research from 138 workers of various works. There was not any aid for strain as a mediator. The outcomes offered work requirement differential influences and role stressors on the execution of innovation, for which the underlying mechanism still requires to be revealed.

Management Optimization

Cybernetic ideas link the management theories that have so far developed. A few concepts that help managers comprehend the nature of management are homeostasis, the law of necessary variety, the relativity of time, the nature of growth, heuristics, holism, synergy, and autopoiesis. Applying general systems theory to management tasks provides prospects for creating intelligent machines, decision-making automation, and the emergence of systems that replicate “style,“ use common sense, and display emotion after intelligent systems (Robb 1984). In this section, the articles that studied management optimization have been analyzed.

Porvazník and Ljudvigová (2016) examined the general hypothesis of cybernetics, systems, and assessment of human eligibility using solving present civilization issues. They found that globalization movements in the global environment lead to indeterminate emergency problems, which management subjects cannot sustainably preserve in the long term. Thus, developing comprehensive management has worked to solve the common tasks and issues of the environment. The use of scientific information regarding conditions of stableness and state of balance between particular types of unit, cooperation and emergency made during common interactivity of parts, regarding rules of equilibrium, response and many others, would help to create solutions from current crisis issues not only in Europe but also worldwide. Furthermore, they found that if a balance in Europe is preserved, the societal system has to be merged or adjusted. Based on parity rules, it is the only solution to make Europe a universal power, collaborating or becoming a rival for the USA and more competing Asian countries, mainly China and India.

Evstegneev et al. (2019) improved technological ways for solving wood procedures depending on cybernetics and automation procedures. Their goal was to improve a procedure and algorithm for raising a cylindrical quantity during dumping by identifying the ideal whip-cutting model and applying successive approximations to find the ideal solution. The input parameters are stated, and the whip model was justified. The method for creating test cutting patterns and the idea behind selecting the best scheme is discussed in light of the cutting zone restriction and the potential quantity of logs. The algorithm can be seen as one of the key components of suitable systems for automated management of the process of bucking and accounting of timber volumes because it significantly decreased the number of computations compared to the sequential enumeration of all available possibilities for cutting. Without considering every potential chopping option, the proposed optimization technique enabled the efficient determination of the cutting scheme with the largest output of the cylindrical volume and/or maximum usage of the length of the cutting area. Further algorithmic development can consider the qualitative and financial parameters for gaining commercial. This technique should therefore become a fundamental component of models for automated management of the bucking process and timber volume accounting.

Vahidi et al. (2019b) reviewed the underpinning principles and scientific trends of cybernetics and the VSM. Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used in the writing. First, historical patterns in management cybernetics were reviewed and analyzed using a descriptive and qualitative approach. Following that, a quantitative frequency analysis was carried out on the first 1,000 articles in the field. They discovered that cybernetics appeared in Josiah Macy’s conversation in 1946. Afterward, Wiener presented the Ashby and cybernetics field, McCulloch and Von Foerster extended this notion regularly. The field of management cybernetics, which Beer presented, is a mixture of control, system, and management sciences. Beer introduced VSM as a functional pattern in the current field. The analysis of 1,000 top-ranked publishings has illustrated that the presentation of the existing domain attained adolescence and more progress became relevantly mature.

In this section, we analyzed 25 articles. Researchers and scientists have come up with various ideas about cybernetics systems. Some researchers have recognized cybernetics systems as the mainstay of planning and strengthening organizations. Others have considered the flexibility and dynamism of cybernetics systems as their main advantage. Some other scientists have said that cybernetics systems are becoming more complicated.

Results

Table 3 provides an overview of the most important goals of the cybernetics systems articles. According to the reviewed studies in this section, most studies have discussed the following issues:

  • Studying the evolution of cybernetic systems;

  • Division of cybernetics systems into different courses by different researchers from the start to the present;

  • Providing different opinions on creating or evolving models and frameworks in this field;

  • Providing different views on improving the management of organizations that use cybernetics systems.

Table 3 Side-by-side summarization and comparison of the essential goals of the cybernetics systems
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Discussion and Open Issue

This study provides a comprehensive overview of cybernetics management systems. Although there has been some recent research on cybernetic systems analytics, there isn’t much in the literature focusing on KM and cybernetic systems. This study compiles, analyzes, and categorizes a large number of pertinent literature. We have highlighted certain difficulties and possibilities for cybernetics systems, and some recommendations have been made. At first, a choosing procedure was applied for impressive studies. A broad range of papers is chosen from an online database. Due to conducting a review of the cybernetics systems until 2020, we showed that published papers were high until 2012. Finally, 25 articles have been analyzed. The papers were separated into 7 main core groups.

  1. 1.

    Historical evolution of cybernetics systems.

  2. 2.

    System dynamics.

  3. 3.

    Dialogic design science.

  4. 4.

    Complexity theory.

  5. 5.

    AI.

  6. 6.

    Cybernetics.

  7. 7.

    Management optimization.

The results of the studies reviewed indicate that cybernetics play a key role in management, but that until now, a high amount of its pledge is still unrecognized. It is particularly right in sphere planning, just in the operational control region containing this pledging domain’s influence, illustrating perceptible outcomes. Currently, so-called cybernetics controls manage or help manage massive chemical procedures, schedule freight cars, make traffic flows easy, supply automatic quality control, and multiple other functioning procedures. There is evidence that the cybernetics effect sphere is slowly increasing (March, 1958).

The discoveries of the paper provide the contributions below. They prepare a visible sign of cybernetics management systems research total direction. While the current study has supplied a summary of cybernetics system location and recognized the hot-accomplishments, a systematic follow-up summary could evaluate more profound into precise regions. This summary can deal with the publication pace. Additionally, the current study indicates the research outcomes and practice as a subsequent research way for decision-makers. The presented article supplies the vision to aid investigators in comprehending better how requirements might influence the decision to adopt cybernetics systems. As a result, there is an elevating requirement for IT investigators to evaluate and comprehend the executions of cybernetics systems and contribute to this field’s theoretical advancement and real-world success.

We encountered some problems in this review. For example, resources were rare to find cybernetics ideas in specific areas. It can be a research field for future studies. Also, most studies have generally been discussed and not addressed in detail. Addressing the details of issues and problems is still an open field.

On the other hand, cybernetics has the potential to contribute to the solution to problems, but the path towards this goal is not straightforward. We found that the utilization of cybernetics is strong in comprehending systems of managed difficulty. Cybernetics is interacting with the semiotics of the components of the system. In order to incorporate and integrate those methods outside of science and engineering, SMC researchers must broaden their systems, man, and cybernetics. A cybernetic system should give itself instructions to reconstruct and reorganize itself to achieve its maximal potential goals. In order to handle and manage the stresses of their internal evolution, cybernetic systems need to be equipped with predictive and attentive capacities. As a result, it might serve as a guide for writers and managers in management cybernetics and educate them about the history, present, and potential future trends in this field.

Cybernetics is a solid basis for transdisciplinary management education and research (Schwaninger 2001). Unfortunately, there are real situations in which traditional risk analysis techniques are unable to manage successfully (Yang and Lee 2020). On the other hand, unpredictable changes will determine the long-term future of an organization.

In Table4, we summarize and compare the critical material to which the relevant articles were addressed. The bright rectangles indicate that the proper research has investigated the appropriate feature, and the dark rectangles indicate that the relevant research has not investigated the corresponding feature. As can be seen from the table, we have found that researchers in this field are more concerned with the complexities of cybernetics systems and believe that management, construction, and knowledge systems will become more complex over time. So cybernetics should consider ways to solve these complexities.

Table 4 Comparison of the relevant articles
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Conclusion and Limitations

This paper has examined cybernetics systems for management. The authors have done a review of related articles. This study has attempted to analyze the cybernetics systems’ strengths and weaknesses as applied to management. Most articles until 2010 have been published on this subject. Since 2010, the proportion of published articles has declined; in other words, researchers have paid less attention to cybernetics systems. IEEE has also published the most significant number of cybernetics articles. Comprehensive reviews of some mechanisms are conducted in order to contrast and identify promising areas for further investigation. This article analyzed 31 selected articles (6 articles analyzed in Sects.3 and 25 in Sect.5). In addition, we comprehensively reviewed what topics were investigated and the results were collected. This paper addresses the challenges of these methods to develop more efficient cybernetics systems in the future. In the end, some interesting lines for future research are provided. Comprehensive reviews of some mechanisms are conducted in order to contrast and identify promising areas for further investigation.

Comprehensive reviews of some mechanisms are conducted to contrast and identify promising areas for further investigation. Secondly, this study has only surveyed the extracted articles based on a keyword search of cybernetics systems, cybernetics management systems, and cybernetics KM systems. The cybernetics systems may not be published with defined keywords.