Introduction

Relationships that family members establish with one another and the effects of those relationships on different periods of development have been frequently addressed in the related literature due to the significance that the family, the first institution an individual encounters in the process of socialization, carries for the child. Upon examining this literature, it can be seen that there is an agreement regarding the effect of family environment on the child’s social and emotional development. Nevertheless, studies concerning the effect of parents’ existing characteristics on the emotional and behavioral functionality of an adult child have been relatively sparse (e.g., Lee and Gotlib 1991; Lum and Phares 2005).

Especially studies that are grounded on the effect of family in adult sample in Turkey focus primarily on the early-period interactions or family functionality. But, studies regarding culture-specific family models (İmamoğlu 2003, 1998; Kağıtçıbaşı 2000; Karadayı 1998) demonstrate that emotional bond among family members is sustained through culture of dependence and relationality. Even in Western societies where achieving autonomy is encouraged through an emphasis on individuality, there are studies showing that parents’ support for their children continues well into adulthood (e.g., Millward 1998; Vassallo et al. 2009; Veevers and Mitchell 1998).

The attachment that is sustained on various levels among family members assumes an ever-changing structure with regard to parent–child relation. In the first years of the child, parents are more supportive of the child’s development and guide the changes that take place. When adolescence ends and child becomes an adult, parent–child relationship takes on a different pattern in which the relation is more egalitarian and both of the parties mutually support each other reflective of a relation between two adults (Birditt et al. 2008).

Culture-specific family interaction patterns and literature findings demonstrating the existence of family support in adulthood suggest that examining the existing parental characteristics that may affect the psychological health of the adult child, not only in the early developmental period but also in the following periods, would prove useful. Emotional availability is one of the concepts that need to be addressed within this context. It determines the quality of relation between a parent and child. Also considered a significant component in reflecting a healthy relation between a parent and child, emotional availability essentially refers to an emotional state of ‘being there’ rather than a physical existence (Biringen and Robinson 1991; Lum and Phrase 2005). As a concept, emotional availability has often been studied with a focus on the mother, as she is the prime caregiver during infancy and childhood; but, there are studies indicating that emotional availability is closely related to a child’s psychological health, adaptive skills, and functionality (e.g., Easterbrooks et al. 2012; Lee and Gotlib 1991; Steinberg and Davila 2008).

Grounded on the attachment theory, emotional availability focuses on issues such as family responses, sensitivity, and emotional participation (Biringen 2000). In the related literature, the concept of emotional availability has often been addressed in the context of parent–child interactions during infancy and early childhood. The concept refers to the dual characteristic of this interaction and is addressed dyadically with Emotional Availability Scales. Constituting a significant aspect of each parent’s interaction with the child, emotional availability is predicted to result in different consequences in accordance with parents’ gender. For example, Lum and Phares’ study (2005) with children and adolescents point out that the relation between each parent’s emotional availability and child functionality is significant; but, the relation between maternal emotional availability and child functionality has been observed to be stronger than the relationship between paternal emotional availability and child functionality.

Emotional availability of parents is a quality that exists under all circumstances (Lum and Phares 2005). The opposite of emotional availability is emotional unavailability. Emotional unavailability is considered to be prominent especially when mother is physically there, but not ‘accessible’ to the child (Aviezer et al. 2003; Filed 1994).The fact that parent–child interactions with a lower level of emotional availability, in other words, emotional interactions that do not satisfy emotional and developmental needs of the child and are characterized by negativity and inadequacy may lead to psychopathology have been documented in the literature (e.g., Easterbrooks et al. 2000; Lee and Gotlib 1991; Steinberg and Davila 2008).

Attachment theory explains the interaction between a parent and child, and provides a basis for emotional availability. According to the attachment theory’s principle regarding psychopathological development, lack of maternal emotional availability jeopardizes both the interaction between parent–child and also the healthy emotional and behavioral organization of the child (Cicchetti 1993; Cicchetti and Toth 2009). Thus, studies concerning the emotional availability of parents or parental characteristics and behaviors related to the emotional availability reveal that these characteristics are associated with the externalized (e.g., delinquent behaviors, aggression, poor impulse control) and internalized (withdrawal, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms) behavioral problems (Bosco et al. 2003), depressive symptoms and interpersonal difficulties (Gomez and McLaren 2006; Simons et al. 1994; Steinberg and Davila 2008), and perceived social support from others (e.g., Scherer et al. 1996). This literature indicates the influence of parental emotional availability on various aspects of child’s affective and behavioral domains.

Hence, it is considered that factors such as variables related to emotion regulation and interpersonal relationships capable of informing emotional and behavioral organization of child may have an impact on the relationship between parental emotional availability and psychopathology. Studies on these relationships show that accepting and supporting parental attitudes have higher correlations with adaptive emotion regulation skills (Eisenberg et al. 1998). Attachment figures who are emotionally available and supportive contribute to the development of adaptive emotion regulation skills both in real terms and symbolically through enhancing feelings of security (Mikulincer and Shaver 2012). Furthermore, it is also suggested that current interactions with parents would affect the interpersonal relationships of the individual through mental representations (Elicker et al. 1992).

Considering this fact, this study examines the mediator role of emotion regulation skills, interpersonal relationship styles, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and general psychological health of individuals aged between 16 and 25 who still live with their parents. The rationale behind the selection of this age group lies on the fact that physical separation from parents (living at one’s own place) without an accepted reason (e.g., marriage, working in another city) is not a norm in Turkey unlike western cultures. This fact brings about the transmission of parent–child bond beyond emotional support which may cause a delay in the development of individuation and autonomy which are the characteristics of adulthood. With this study, it will be possible to examine the parental influences on psychological health in late adolescence and adulthood in terms of both mothers’ and fathers’ characteristics. Besides, it may help to understand which areas of the child may be associated with parental traits that have the potential to affect the child’s psychological health during adulthood. Examining the possible effects of parental emotional availability and the possible variables that have a role in these effects is considered to contribute to protective and preventive mental health practices, which place family at the center and provide data regarding behavioral practices related to emotional care and support that the families show in mental health studies. Because parents remain influential in children’s life, prevention and treatment programs aiming at increasing parental emotional availability may be effective in reducing the risk of psychopathology for adolescents and for adults who still live with their parents. In families where parental emotional availability is low because of marital conflicts, divorce, or presence of mental illness in parent(s), it will contribute to identify the areas that can intervene in adult child with psychological distress. In addition, the information and findings acquired about this issue could be used to enhance the quality of interpersonal relations that target the emotionally unavailable individuals.

Method

Sample

Individuals aged 16–25 years who live in one of the four big cities of Turkey (Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, Bolu) with their parents constitute the sample of this research. The convenient sampling technique was used, and the participation was on voluntary basis. The analyses have been conducted through responses of 380 participants after the data cleansing process to eliminate any errors. Socio-demographic characteristics of participants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of sample and their parents
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Measures

Lum Emotional Availability of Parents (LEAP)

Developed by Lum and Phares (2005) with a consideration regarding participants’ mothers and fathers, the scale consists of 15-item that are rated using a 6-point Likert scale, 1 (never) to 6 (always). In Lum and Phares’ study, the scale has been found to demonstrate single factorial structure described as parental emotional availability. The results of the same study indicate that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for non-clinical sample are .96 for the mother form and .97 for father form; for clinical sample it is .92 for the mother form, and .93 for the father form. Test–retest reliability is indicated to be .92 for the mother form and .85 for the father form.

The adaptation of the scale into Turkish has been carried out within the scope of this study. Researchers have translated the scale items individually; two arbiters, a clinical and a social psychologist have reviewed the differently expressed items and put the scale into its final form. Factor structure of the scale has been evaluated with the intent of determining psychometric properties of Turkish form. In compliance with the original form, it has been found that both maternal and paternal emotional availability forms have single factorial structure. In the analysis that has been conducted to learn about the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient has been found to be .95 for mother form, and .97 for father form. Item-test correlation of the scale on the mother form ranged from .65 to .83, and .76 to .86 on the father form. Higher scores on the mother and father forms of the scale are also associated with higher rates of parental emotional availability depending on the form. Also, higher scores on the scale reflect the greater parental emotional availability.

Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS)

Developed by Gratz and Roemer (2004), the scale consists of 36-item that are rated using a 5-point Likert scale. It has six subscales: awareness (lack of awareness regarding emotional responses), clarity (not understanding emotional responses), non-acceptance (non-acceptance of emotional responses), strategies (limited access to emotion regulation strategies perceived as effective), impulse (difficulty controlling impulses while experiencing negative emotions), and goals (difficulties engaging in goal directed behavior while experiencing negative emotions). In the process of adapting the scale into Turkish and assessing its validity and reliability (Rugancı 2008), the tenth item of the original scale has been replaced with another item of the same content since the item in question had very low correlation (r = .06) with the entire scale. In this way, factor number and structure were rendered the same with the original form of the scale and structure validity was ensured. During the adaptation process, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale was .94 and for the subscales it ranged from .90 to .75 (Rugancı 2008). Higher scores on the scale suggest greater problems with emotion regulation.

Interpersonal Relationship Styles Scale (IRSS)

This scale has been prepared by Şahin et al. (1994) who were inspired by the list of behaviors in the manual of a video program called ‘Stress Management: Positive Strategy.’ It consists of 31-item that are rated using a 4-point Likert scale. Higher scores on the scale, which is a two-dimensional structure (nourishing and inhibitory styles), reflect a positive style in interpersonal relationships. In the reliability analyses, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .79, and split half reliability coefficient was .63 (Şahin et al. 1994).

Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS)

Developed by Zimet et al. (1988), the scale consists of 12-item that are rated using a 7-point Likert scale. Family, friends, and a significant other constitute the three subscales that have been identified as the source of perceived social support. While adapting the scale into Turkish and assessing its validity and reliability (Eker et al. 2001), it has been made clear that the term ‘significant other’ is not used prevalently in the context of Turkey. Hence, this subscale has been rearranged/renamed as ‘someone other than a family member or friends’ (e.g., a date, fiancée, relative, neighbor, physician). Factor number and structure were supported in the adaptation process. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient that was obtained from different samples ranges from .80 to .95 (Eker et al. 2001) and in this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale was .89.

Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI)

Developed by Derogatis (1992) so as to assess the general psychological health, the test consists of 53-item that uses the 5-point Likert scale. Turkish adaptation of the scale has been carried out through adult (Şahin and Durak 1994) and adolescent (Şahin et al. 2002) samples. Anxiety, depression, negative self concept, somatization, and hostility are the five subscales of BSI. Internal consistency coefficients for adult sampling range from .75 to .87, and .70 to .88 for adolescent sampling. Higher scores on the scale reflect higher levels of psychological symptoms in individuals.

Procedure

Before starting to carry out the study, Ethical Committee of Ankara University has confirmed the research’s compliance with ethical principles. Alongside the standard scales, the informed consent section at the beginning of the form emphasizes the goal of the research and states that participating in the study is on a voluntary basis. It is also pointed out that there will not be individual evaluations; the responses will be evaluated in a collective manner.

Findings

First, independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare maternal and paternal emotional availability for 16–18 and 18–25 age groups. According to the independent samples t-test result, the mean for maternal emotional availability did not differ for 16–18 (M = 74.86; SD = 13.94) and 18–25 (M = 76.23; SD = 15.13) age groups, t(378) = −.919, p > .05. Similarly, the mean for paternal emotional availability did not differ for 16–18 (M = 66.56; SD = 19.50) and 18–25 (M = 65.06; SD = 20.76) age groups, t(378) = .727, p > .05.

In accordance with the main goal of the study, mediator role of emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and psychological health of adult children has been explored through the regression analyses suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986). In this suggested method, a variable has to fulfill four conditions for being a mediator variable. The conditions are as follows: (a) independent variable should significantly predict the dependent variable; (b) independent variable should significantly predict the mediator variable; (c) the mediator variable should predict the dependent variable, which is the predicted variable; (d) when the independent variable, the predictor variable, and the mediator variable enter into analysis simultaneously, the significant relationship between the dependent and independent variable should be no more significant or the relation between them should decrease. When the mediator variable enters into analysis, if the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is no more significant, then it is complete mediation; if the relationship just decreases, it is partial mediation.

In line with these steps, the effect of indirect mediation and whether or not it is statistically different from zero in a significant way have been evaluated via Bootstrapping method suggested by Preacher and Hayes (2008). Bootstrapping is a non-parametric method that relies on resampling procedure repeated thousands of times (e.g., 1000, 5000 times) with replacement. Indirect mediator effect is computed for each resampling. The significance of the mediation effect after resampling is determined in accordance with the computation of typical confidence interval and whether or not there is zero within this interval. Non-existence of zero within confidence interval indicates that indirect effect is different from zero, hence significant.

Since the indirect effects in question are determined in line with a chain of regression analyses, relations among the research variables have been first evaluated through correlation analysis. Results of Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Analysis are included in Table 2.

Table 2 Intercorrelations the variables (N = 380)
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As can be seen in Table 2, the variables that have been addressed in the research are significantly related to each other in the expected direction. Additionally, correlations between subscales and total scores of main variables reflect a significant relationship between subscales and total scores in the expected direction apart from the relationship between inhibitory style and parental emotional availability, which has been found to be insignificant. Following the examination of variables’ relationship with each other through correlation analysis, the mediator role of difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and psychological health has been explored.

Findings regarding the mediator role of variables in question on the relationship between maternal emotional availability and general psychological well-being can be seen in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Mediation roles of difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship styles, and multidimensional perceived social support in the relationship between emotional availability of mother and general psychological health. Note Path values represent unstandardized regression coefficients. The value outside of the parentheses represents the total effect of emotional availability of mother on psychological health prior to the inclusion of the mediating variables. Value in parentheses represents the direct effect, from bootstrapping analyses, of emotional availability of mother on psychological health after the mediators are included

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As can be seen in Fig. 1, maternal emotional availability has a direct and significant effect (t = −5.76, p < .001) on general psychological health. Maternal emotional availability exerts a direct and significant effect on the difficulty in emotion regulation (t = −5.11, p < .001), interpersonal relationship styles (t = 4.87, p < .001) , and multidimensional perceived social support (t = 9.43, p < .001). When the predicting effect of the mediator variables on psychological health (the predicted variable) is examined, it can be seen that ‘difficulty in emotion regulation’ (t = 13.26, p < .001), ‘interpersonal relationship styles’ (t = −2.74, p < .01) , and ‘multidimensional perceived social support’ (t = −2.33, p < .05) have direct significant effects. When maternal emotional availability and all the mediator variables enter into equation simultaneously, the relationship between maternal emotional availability and general psychological health becomes insignificant (t = −1.60, p > .05). On the basis of these findings, it has been concluded that the mediator variables have ‘complete mediation’ effect on the relationship between maternal emotional availability and general psychological health. Besides, a look at the findings of the analysis shows that the entire model is significant (F 4-375 = 80.91, p < .001) and 46% of variance is accounted for.

A bootstrapping sample of 1000 people has been examined so as to discern whether or not the mediator variables’ partial mediation effect was significant. Results are given in the Table 3. Accordingly, the total indirect effect of all three variables is significant (with a point estimate of −.50 and 95% BCa CI of −.6897, −.3217). Furthermore, when each variable is addressed separately, it can be seen that complete mediation effect of difficulty in emotion regulation (with a point estimate of −.34 and 95% BCa CI of −.4901, −.1867), interpersonal relationship styles (with a point estimate of −.06 and 95% BCa CI of −.1381, −.0153), and multidimensional perceived social support (with a point estimate of −.12 and 95% BCa CI of −.2080, −.0137) is also significant.

Table 3 Mediation of the effect of emotional availability of mother on psychological health through emotion regulation difficulties, interpersonal relationship styles, and social support
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Findings regarding the mediator role of the variables in question on the relationship between paternal emotional availability and general psychological well-being can be seen in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Mediation roles of difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship styles, and multidimensional perceived social support in the relationship between emotional availability of father and general psychological health. Note Path values represent unstandardized regression coefficients. The value outside of the parentheses represents the total effect of emotional availability of father on psychological health prior to the inclusion of the mediating variables. Value in parentheses represents the direct effect, from bootstrapping analyses, of emotional availability of father on psychological health after the mediators are included

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As can be seen in Fig. 2, paternal emotional availability has a direct and significant effect (t = −5.12, p < .001) on the general psychological health. Paternal emotional availability exerts a direct and significant effect on mediator variables.

“Difficulty in emotion regulation” (t = −4.22, p < .001), “interpersonal relationship styles” (t = 3.29, p < .01), and “multidimensional perceived social support” (t = 9.30, p < .001). When the predicting effect of the mediator variables on psychological health (the predicted variable) is examined, it can be seen that ‘difficulty in emotion regulation’ (t = 13.31, p < .001), ‘interpersonal relationships styles’ (t = −2.87, p < .01), and ‘multidimensional perceived social support’ (t = −2.24, p < .05) have a direct and significant effect. When paternal emotional availability and all the mediator variables enter into equation simultaneously, the relationship between paternal emotional availability and general psychological health becomes insignificant (t = −1.72, p > .05). On the basis of these findings, it has been concluded that the mediator variables have ‘complete mediation’ effect on the relationship between paternal emotional availability and general psychological health. Besides, a look at the findings of the analysis shows that the entire model is significant (F 4-375 = 81.10, p < .001) and 46% of variance is accounted for.

A bootstrapping sample of 1000 people has been examined so as to discern whether or not the mediator variables’ partial mediation effect was significant. Results are given in Table 4. Accordingly, the total indirect effect of all three variables is significant (with point estimate of −.30 and 95% BCa CI of −.4425, −.1649). Furthermore, when each variable is addressed separately, it can be seen that partial mediation effect of ‘difficulty in emotion regulation’ (with point estimate of −.20 and 95% BCa CI of −.3182, −.0962), ‘interpersonal relationship styles’ (with point estimate of −.03 and 95% BCa CI of −.0758, −.0087), and ‘multi-dimensional perceived social support’ (with point estimate of −.07 and 95% BCa CI of −.1492 −.0062) is also significant.

Table 4 Mediation of the effect of emotional availability of father on psychological health through emotion regulation difficulties, interpersonal relationship styles, and social support
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Discussion

The parent–child relationship varies according to developmental stages. In the first years of the child, parents are more supportive of the child’s development and guide the changes that take place. When adolescence ends and child becomes an adult, parent–child relationship takes on a different pattern in which the relation is more egalitarian and both of the parties mutually support each other reflective of a relation between two adults (Birditt et al. 2008). Nevertheless, such an egalitarian relation may not be the dominant pattern in each parent–child interaction.

Establishing this ideal structure is considered to be relatively easier in societies where individuals are financially independent and live on their own terms, where social norms are supportive of a relatively more egalitarian and independent parent–child interaction. Nevertheless, it is also foreseen that reaching such a stage in societies like Turkey where hierarchical structuring in family relations is supported and normalized in a way to last for life by individuals and society alike, where physical separation from parents (e.g., living at one’s own place) generally takes place via marriage and where familial relations are maintained on the basis of relationality will be much harder. Hence, this study examines the mediator role of difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship styles, and perceived social support on the relationship between parental emotional availability and general psychological health of individuals aged 16–25 who still live with their parents. To this end, correlative relations among the research variables have been explored at first. Relations among the variables have been found to be significant in the expected direction. Accordingly, higher levels of maternal and paternal emotional availability are reflective of a more positive style in interpersonal relationships and an increased level of multidimensional social support. Lower levels of emotion regulation difficulties and general psychological symptoms have been observed. This finding is consistent with the literature. For example, it has been found in a study conducted with adolescents that children develop more constructive emotion regulation skills when a parent responds in an accepting and supportive manner (Eisenberg et al. 1998). There is no study that directly addresses the relationship between parental emotional availability and interpersonal relationship styles. Nevertheless, when this relationship is considered in terms of attachment, it is known that secure attachment is related to more positive interpersonal relationships while insecure attachment pattern refers to negative experiences in interpersonal relationships. The effect of parental emotional availability on interpersonal relationships also manifests itself in perceived social support. A study has pointed out that those individuals who perceive their mothers as having a non-supportive style also perceive less social support from their parents, teachers, and friends (Scherer et al. 1996). The starting point for this research was to explore the relationship between parental emotional availability and psychological health. When related literature is examined, it can be seen that there are research findings demonstrating that parental emotional availability and support are related to depression, social anxiety level, and behavioral problems (e.g., Bosco et al. 2003; Lum and Phares 2005; Simons et al. 1994; Steinberg and Davila 2008; Umberson 1992). All these findings, in their entirety, could be explained with the view that parent–child interactions with lower levels of emotional availability may cause a risk factor related to maladaptive functionality in the child and negative and inadequate interactions in which the emotional and developmental needs of the child are not met may lead to psychopathology (Lee and Gotlib 1991). Attachment theory explains the relationship between a parent and child and provides a basis for the concept of emotional availability. According to attachment theory’s principle regarding psychopathological development, lack of maternal emotional availability jeopardizes both the interaction between parent–child and also the healthy emotional and behavioral organization of the child (Cicchetti 1993; Cicchetti and Toth 2009). Furthermore, the quality of relationship that has been established with a parent maintains its importance not only in infancy and childhood, but also in subsequent periods of development. As a matter of fact, research findings demonstrate that children who continue to receive emotional support from their parents, feel attached to them and care about their contributions and support (e.g., Vassallo et al. 2009). Consistent with the literature, this study revealed no significant difference in terms of perceived emotional availability of parents between 16–18 and 18–25 age groups which can be considered to be in two different developmental periods.

Autonomy and the ability to act autonomous that have been acquired in the social, cognitive, and emotional fields as a characteristic of adolescence and adulthood do not lead to solitude or becoming distant to one’s parents. It enables individuals to establish a changing and reciprocal relationship with their parents (Allen et al. 1994).

Thus, it becomes important to evaluate how certain parental properties affect psychological health within this changing relationship structure. In mediator variable analysis conducted for this end, it has been found that difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, and social support has complete mediation effect on the relationship between maternal emotional availability and psychological health, whereas the mediator variables in question assume the role of partial mediators on the relationship between paternal emotional availability and psychological health.

As a requirement of the attachment system, parents still maintain their function of being a secure ground for their children in different developmental periods. It could be emotional availability that enables them to maintain this function. Mikulincer and Shaver (2012) have stated that interactions with emotionally available and supportive attachment figures contribute to one’s sense of security, trigger positive emotions, may be used as a psychological resource when dealing with problems, and provide real and symbolic support in developing positive emotion regulation skills.

Parental responses that are emphasized within the concept of emotional availability such as sensitivity, emotional participation, non-hostility, compromise, controlling proper emotional expressions and emotions may affect the development and use of proper emotion regulation skills in the children through direct and indirect means such as internalization and taking someone as a model. Given the fact that those issues in question may refer to the emotion regulation methods employed by a parent, it can be said that research findings demonstrating that the emotion regulation strategies used by mothers and children are similar (e.g., Bariola et al. 2011) may support this opinion. Nevertheless, emotion regulation process, which has functions such as decreasing the intensity and duration of experienced emotion, is considered to have a central role in many psychopathologies when it is evaluated in terms of psychological health (Barlow 2000; Cole et al. 1994). Thus, it can be put forward that parental characteristic has an impact on the psychological health by influencing the child’s emotion regulation process. As a matter of fact, there are research findings confirming the fact that family has an effect on a child’s emotion regulation skills (e.g., Morris et al. 2002).

Apart from emotion regulation, parental emotional availability seems to have an effect on the interpersonal relationships of the children in various ways. Even though no study has been found in the relevant literature with respect to the relationship in question addressed in the context of interpersonal style, this issue could be assessed in the context of attachment theory and internal working models. According to attachment theory, the quality of interaction with early-period caregivers may contribute to the development of either positive or negative representations regarding one’s own self and others. Additionally, it has been stated that mental representations of individuals regarding themselves and others may not be solely rooted in childhood interactions, but may also result from existing parent–child relationship. These representations are strongly related to the qualities of parent–child relationship; thus the existing mother–child–father relationships may also influence the mental representations (Allen et al. 2007). In this regard, it can be considered that relationships maintained with emotionally available parents have a positive effect on an individual’s perception toward others. Through positive mental representations such as believing that others are accessible and helpful, the individual may be better equipped in establishing closeness and developing adaptive relations. This situation has a positive effect on the social support perceived by the individual and it may increase the function of social support that acts as a buffer zone for negative life experiences and also diminishes the possibility of developing psychological symptoms by minimizing difficulties in interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, mental representations that are generated with parents seem to shape the basic emotion regulation strategies, thoughts, and behaviors in close relationships (Bowlby 1973). Therefore, representations of the interactions with parents do not only shape the information processing procedure, emotion regulation, and behaviors specific to that relationship, but they are also expected to have an effect on one’s relationships with others (Elicker et al. 1992). One of the fields these representations could be transferred is the style used in interpersonal relationships. The interactions that question the quality of attachment between a parent and child may influence the interpersonal relationship style that the child uses in accordance with his/her internal models regarding himself/herself and others.

As addressed in this study, the positive/nourishing style used in interpersonal relationships is considered to have the potential to provide positive contributions to interpersonal relationships (Greenwald 1999) by expressing the needs, approaching the other person in an accepting, respectful, and constructive manner (Batıgün and Şahin 2009; Şahin et al. 2011), and by contributing to the mutual agreement (Greenwald 1999). On the other hand, inhibitory style having properties such as contempt, verbal abuse, and being easily vexed makes it difficult to establish and maintain a healthy and nourishing relationship (Greenwald 1999). Besides, negative interpersonal style could be related to destructive consequences on its own and may also have a negative effect on the social support that one may receive from others.

Apart from the issues that have been addressed above, one of the important findings of the study is that the mediation level of variables did not differ with regard to mothers and fathers. Despite the recognition of the difference between the behaviors regarding mother and father roles and some findings indicating that the beliefs about fatherhood attitudes are influenced largely by culture (Şen et al. 2014), it can be stated that emotional availability indicates a construct different from these roles.

In conclusion, the findings of the study demonstrate that parental emotional availability is related to difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship style, social support, and psychological health of the individuals in the adulthood period. In addition, difficulties in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship styles, and social support have a mediator effect on the relationship between parental emotional availability and psychological symptoms. When seen in this light, it may be important for professionals who work in the mental health field to evaluate parental emotional availability while dealing with psychological symptoms. The findings of the study may also provide data for behavioral practices so as to increase the parental emotional care and support that have been shown in the mental studies conducted with families. The findings may decrease the risk of psychopathology through programs as well. The findings acquired from the mediator variable analysis reveal that professionals working with individuals who have had negative experiences with their parents should also pay attention to social support networks, the interpersonal styles, and emotion regulation skills of these individuals while dealing with psychological health. In the literature, it can be seen that psychological health and variables that may be related to it have been studied based on parents. These studies are often explored in line with mother and her qualities. Nearly all the findings obtained from the study reveal that both maternal and paternal emotional availability have a significant relationship with the variables in the same direction. Thus, professionals working in the mental health field will be better off, if they take the qualities of fathers into consideration.

Limitations and suggestions

This study that aims to assess the effect of a certain parental property on psychological health makes use of a measure that has been developed in Western society. Given the fact that parental behaviors may differ across cultures, this poses a limitation. Developing a culture-specific measurement instrument in the field of emotional availability will prove useful in avoiding this limitation in future studies. Another limitation of the study is that the sample consists of individuals who live with their parents. Furthermore, examining the effects of maternal and paternal emotional availability on psychological health of individuals who do not live with their parents will contribute to the related literature.

Mother–child interaction has often been addressed in the relevant literature. Further research on father-oriented studies is warranted. The fact that difficulty in emotion regulation, interpersonal relationship styles, and social support has a complete mediator effect on the relationship between paternal emotional availability and psychological health, indeed, demonstrates that future research is warranted on this issue.