1 Introduction

The use of serious games in the teaching-learning process is constantly growing. As Westera (2019) argues, this growth is prompted fundamentally due to the favorable environment this technology provides for the student, notably its potential for motivating, exploring, researching, and reflecting on the content covered in the classroom. Serious games can be defined as a playful activity performed in the context of a simulated reality, in which participants try to achieve an educational goal by acting according to the rules of the game (Crookall, 2010). According to this view, serious games have well-defined rules, and the challenges posed to players are objective and clear.

Serious games can be framed within the methodology called Game-Based Learning (GBL) which presents a pedagogical methodology focused on the design, development, use, and application of games in education and training (Adipat et al., 2021; Cabellos et al., 2023; Krath et al., 2021). The premise behind this type of learning is that pedagogical content, training, and instruction can be combined with digital games. GBL works because it involves the learner in this process, and also as Anastasiadis et al. (2018) argue, it is an interactive process and can take different forms, depending on the goals. GBL significantly impacts student achievement, demonstrating a broad and positive effect across various educational contexts (Karakoç et al., 2022). In summary, through the union of educational content and digital games, a highly contextual environment for learners is provided.

Studies have emerged, such as Elliott et al. (2021), Kim (2021), and López et al. (2021) that highlight the role of serious games in teaching management, while Charrouf and Janan (2019) and Fox et al. (2018) emphasize their relevance to teaching entrepreneurship. In these studies, it is noted that the adoption of serious games contributes to reducing psychological barriers related to self-esteem, lack of innovation, and creativity that inhibit entrepreneurship. It is reported, however, that serious games have motivated students to develop their entrepreneurial ability, but do not necessarily increase their entrepreneurial intention (Fellnhofer, 2015; Pérez-Pérez et al., 2021). These findings are not incompatible with the learning objectives in higher education, considering that an entrepreneurship course should not focus on the process of creating entrepreneurs, but on developing critical thinking, and leadership skills essential for entrepreneurial activity, which can take a variety of approaches in an organization.

Entrepreneurial intention refers to an individual’s inclination and motivation to engage in entrepreneurial activities, such as starting a business or pursuing an entrepreneurial career. It is influenced by various factors, including personal traits, social environment, education, and experience (Maheshwari et al., 2022; Wathanakom et al., 2020). Serious games have emerged as a complementary tool that can enhance learning and motivation in the entrepreneurial context by providing experiential learning, skill development, and immersive experiences related to entrepreneurship. Serious games offer a hands-on and interactive learning experience, allowing individuals to simulate entrepreneurial activities in a controlled environment. By engaging in these virtual entrepreneurial experiences, individuals can develop a better understanding of entrepreneurship and its challenges, which positively influence their intention to pursue entrepreneurial ventures (Chen et al., 2022). Furthermore, serious games provide opportunities for individuals to develop and enhance specific entrepreneurial skills. These games often incorporate various business-related scenarios and challenges that require players to utilize skills, such as problem-solving, creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration (Romero et al., 2015). Moreover, entrepreneurship involves a certain level of risk-taking and uncertainty. Serious games can help individuals develop a realistic understanding of the risks and challenges associated with entrepreneurship. By simulating various business scenarios, individuals can learn to assess and manage risks effectively, which will positively impact their perception of entrepreneurial risk (Allal-Chérif et al., 2022). Additionally, Soumia et al. (2022) note that serious games are designed to be engaging and motivational, fostering a sense of enjoyment and immersion among players. When individuals find the gameplay experience enjoyable, they are more likely to be motivated to explore and pursue entrepreneurship. In this sense, the adoption of serious games in higher education for training entrepreneurial skills has great potential. Studies exploring the potential of experimental design practices in entrepreneurial education have mostly looked at the outcomes of these initiatives with students considering samples without a control group which introduces a bias. This view is confirmed by Longva and Foss (2018) when they highlight that most studies in the field of experimental design in entrepreneurship education use one-group pretest-posttest (32%), followed by non-equivalent posttest and one-group posttest (28%, each one), and non-equivalent pretest-posttest control group (9%). In conclusion, 97% of the studies do not have uniform pretest-posttest samples. This gap does not allow us to explore the effects of using a serious game on the development of entrepreneurial skills, on the perceived reduction of barriers to entrepreneurial activity, and ultimately on entrepreneurial intention, since these constructs are strongly dependent on the profile of the students attending an entrepreneurship course, as recognized in the work carried out by Bortoluzzi-Balconi et al. (2023) and Toding et al. (2023). In this sense, this study addresses this research gap by applying a randomized pretest-posttest control group to explore the adoption of a serious game (i.e., FLIGBY) in the context of an entrepreneurship course attended by students of a higher education institution in Portugal. This approach kept the same pedagogical approach apart from the introduction of the serious game, which was played by the students outside of the classroom for a maximum period of two weeks.

The rest of this manuscript is organized as follows: Initially, a theoretical contextualization of the role of entrepreneurial behavior and the relevance of entrepreneurial education is given. Next, the methodology is presented, where the characteristics of the sample and the methods used to explore the results of this empirical study are described. After that, the results are presented and discussed, considering the relevance of each research question previously defined. Finally, the conclusions of the study are presented, and the theoretical and practical contributions are also highlighted.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Entrepreneurship Education

Two lines of research regarding entrepreneurship can be found in the literature. The economic approach argues that entrepreneurship is directly related to innovation through the introduction of new products and services, the creation of new forms of organization, or the exploitation of new resources or materials (Kardos, 2012; Schumpeter, 1981); while the behaviorist view approaches the concept of entrepreneurship from the standpoint of creativity and intuition, in which the attitudes and characteristics of entrepreneurial individuals are explored (Fillis & Rentschler, 2010).

Despite the different perspectives of entrepreneurship analysis, there is agreement that the object of study is the prospective entrepreneur. Those individuals are characterized by having specific characteristics, such as inspiration and vision that allow them to identify changes as opportunities for value creation in society (Zahra & Wright, 2016). The individual entrepreneur also possesses characteristics that go beyond the business world, such as creativity, proactivity, and propensity to take risks (Bhansing et al., 2018; Kozubíková et al., 2017). This broader view on the entrepreneur is further elaborated by Galván-Vela et al. (2021) and Huang et al. (2021) when highlighting entrepreneurial individuals in the context of organizations, the so-called corporate entrepreneurs or intrapreneurs.

The characterization of an individual’s behavior depends in advance on his or her intention. Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior seeks to explain these relationships by postulating that intention depends on attitudes toward a behavior, subjective norms, and perceived control over the behavior. In this view, intentions capture the motivational factors that influence behavior and provide indications of the effort an individual will be willing to give to accomplish certain tasks. Another conclusion that can be drawn from the model proposed by Ajzen (1991) is that an individual’s intention to perform a behavior increases with the positive perception of that behavior, the acceptance of this behavior by the group or context in which he or she belongs, and the perception that he or she can behave in that way. This theoretical framework proposed by Ajzen (1991) has been widely used in studies on intention, behavior, and entrepreneurship education (Engle et al., 2010; Nguyen, 2017; Zhang et al., 2015). Other models have been proposed that seek to characterize entrepreneurial behavior. Wenhong and Liuying (2010) investigated the effects of rational and intuitive thinking systems on the propensity to take risks and concluded that entrepreneurial behavior is the consequence of the interchange between logical information and subjective experiences. In Fernández-Pérez et al. (2014) and Usman et al. (2022), relationship networks for entrepreneurial activity are explored, highlighting the role of communication, collaborative work, and the ability to recruit key collaborators. Therefore, personal qualities such as determination, passion, and continuous learning are differentiating elements for an entrepreneurial individual. Finally, in the study conducted by Cassar (2007), the relationship between entrepreneurial attitude and financial motivation was tested. The results indicated that financial motivation was not shown to be a major factor in starting a business.

The studies in this field allow us to conclude that the entrepreneurial spirit is not a personality trait that allows us to establish whether an individual will become an entrepreneur or not. What defines the entrepreneurial spirit is the way the individual sees opportunities, it is the willingness to do things differently, it is the ability to innovate, transform, and above all has the courage to take risks and the willingness to own his/her business (Drucker, 2006). Furthermore, Alves et al. (2019) and Moraes et al. (2018) conclude that entrepreneurial potential is created from a set of characteristics and varies from individual to individual.

Recent literature in the field of entrepreneurial education recognizes that entrepreneurship can be fostered and developed through education if there is an appropriate environment for it (Ferreras-Garcia et al., 2021; Olutuase et al., 2022; Schimperna et al., 2022). Thus, it can be concluded that entrepreneurship can be transmitted and formally acquired by students in specific courses and training, or even informally through programs defined for this purpose. This does not invalidate, as recognized by Curtis et al. (2021), that much of the entrepreneurial knowledge and skills are acquired through experimentation through the practice of learning by doing.

Entrepreneurship education does not address only the process of creating and managing a business but also proposes a new educational philosophy guided by innovation, flexibility in ambiguous environments, and cultivation of entrepreneurial talents, focusing on skills development (Saptono et al., 2021; Welsh et al., 2016). This is the main difference between entrepreneurship education and other types of business courses since the former focuses on the dynamic nature of idea-generation and providing the actions that should be taken to turn them into business opportunities.

Nguyen and Do (2021) highlight the importance of creativity in entrepreneurship education courses. It should provide individuals with concepts and skills to recognize opportunities that others would not realize, generating new ideas, self-esteem, and knowledge in taking actions that others have avoided. Also recognizing the importance of creativity, Linton and Klinton (2019) consider that teaching entrepreneurship should induce innovative thinking accompanied by managerial skills. Furthermore, it is pointed out that entrepreneurial education should take place as close to the labor market as possible, as part of the experience that is offered to the student depends on their experience and active participation in the process (Shekhar & Huang-Saad, 2021). Thus, entrepreneurship education programs should encourage and incentivize students to put their business plans into practice. Considering this, entrepreneurship education should make it apparent to the student that self-employment is a valid career option.

The objectives and structure of an entrepreneurship course must be defined according to the particularities of the target audience. Such courses have been offered mainly in the social sciences and engineering to provide students with knowledge about the business world, its purposes and structure, relating various segments of the economy and society. This overly expository approach is recognized by Gerba (2012) and Matlay (2008) as offering little opportunity to generate effective change in the entrepreneurial orientation of graduates. Rather, a new paradigm of entrepreneurship education has emerged that seeks to complement this vision with the development of skills needed to identify and exploit new opportunities through the creation and management of new businesses, and also the development of personal qualities that are relevant to entrepreneurship, such as creativity, risk-taking, and responsibility (Jardim, 2021; Leon, 2017). Finally, even if these students do not want to become entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship education can play an important role in their careers. Skills related to creativity, leadership, emotional intelligence, and communication can help individuals improve their performance throughout their entrepreneurial careers (Gawrycka et al., 2020; Pang et al., 2019).

2.2 Serious Games in Entrepreneurship Education

Serious games have become increasingly relevant in higher education. They combine entertainment elements with educational goals, providing an interactive and engaging approach to learning. The main contribution of serious games to student engagement lies in their immersive and interactive nature. Unlike traditional teaching methods, such as lectures or reading course materials, Waytz and Gray (2018) point out that adopting games in learning offers a more engaging experience, allowing students to learn in an active and participatory manner. Serious games foster active learning by engaging students in active activities where they need to make decisions, solve problems, and apply knowledge in practical situations. This active approach to learning promotes retention of information and application of skills more effectively than via just lectures and readings (Fernández-Sánchez et al., 2023). Furthermore, Shum et al. (2023) recognize that many serious games are designed with features that allow for personalization of the learning experience. Consequently, learners can progress at their own pace, tackling challenges appropriate to their skill level and receiving additional support when needed. Horwitz et al. (2023) advocate this personalized approach keeps learners engaged, preventing them from becoming bored or unmotivated.

Serious games are used to present real-world situations and practical application of academic concepts. Such games use game-design elements to create virtual environments in which players can experience and learn about real-life situations in a safe and controlled manner (Laamarti et al., 2014). This helps students see the relevance and usefulness of what they are learning, increasing their engagement. The provision of virtual environments is a key feature of serious games. They can simulate real places, such as cities, hospitals, businesses, natural environments, among others (Damasevicius et al., 2023; Taillandier & Adam, 2018). Those virtual environments offer players the opportunity to explore and interact with elements that are familiar and relevant to the real-life situation. Serious games can also incorporate stories and narratives that present real-world situations and challenges (Naul & Liu, 2020). By following an engaging narrative, players can become emotionally involved and face dilemmas and decisions similar to those they would encounter in real life. Another characteristic of serious games is the inclusion of virtual characters that represent real people or personality types found in the real world (Segaran et al., 2021). Such characters can play specific roles, such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, clients, and others, allowing players to interact and practice their skills in realistic contexts.

In the entrepreneurship education field, serious games provide learners with the opportunity to develop entrepreneurial skills practically and engagingly. Several strategies (e.g., immediate feedback, realistic simulations, problem-based learning, personalization of the experience) are incorporated into the design of serious games to provide players with an engaging, hands-on, and meaningful learning experience that allows them to develop entrepreneurial skills (Bellotti et al., 2012). The concepts and skills acquired through serious games can be transferred to real entrepreneurship situations. Students can apply what they have learned to real-world scenarios, developing a practical understanding of the challenges and opportunities encountered by real entrepreneurs. Furthermore, many serious games encourage collaboration and teamwork by simulating business dynamics in which students must interact, negotiate, and make joint decisions (Matthews & Thomas, 2022). These social skills are fundamental in entrepreneurship, where collaboration with others is common. Risk and failure are controlled, which is an important element given the potential consequences of a bad decision. According to Schönbohm and Zhang (2022), this is an element that encourages experimentation, creativity, and innovation, which are essential elements of entrepreneurship.

The framework of serious games in entrepreneurship education in higher education may vary according to the teaching and learning objectives set by the educators. It should also be noted that the higher-education system should not look exclusively at the transmission of technical content but should also measure how much it is assimilated by the students. The framework proposed by Liu et al. (2021) argues that entrepreneurship education’s effectiveness should rest on three pillars: (i) entrepreneurial competencies; (ii) entrepreneurial barriers; and (iii) entrepreneurial intention. Serious games can be used for the specific development of business skills, concepts, and practices. They can simulate business scenarios, allowing players to learn about finance, marketing, human resource management, growth strategies, and other business-related aspects (Beranic & Hericko, 2022; Ferreras-Garcia et al., 2021; López et al., 2021). These games help to develop practical knowledge of entrepreneurship and understanding of key business principles.

2.3 The FLIGBY Learning Experience

FLIGBY, a brand acronym for ‘Flow Is Good Business for You’, was created by Prof. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, renowned as the father of positive psychology and Flow theory, together with ALEAS Simulations, a serious gaming lab (www.FLIGBY.com). The developmental focus throughout the simulation game is that learners enhance their overall management skills and practice those within an entrepreneurial-realistic setting.

The FLIGBY interactive movie offers a learning experience in which the player assumes the role of interim GM of an entrepreneurial family business and must make 150 + complex decisions with business and leadership dilemmas to lead the strategic direction and ensure the business’s success. Thus, it was designed specifically to stimulate leadership awareness and possible entrepreneurial intentions (Risley & Buzady, 2022): the player is typically presented with a short video clip with conflict and has to choose the most appropriate decision option. The outcome of their choice is then played out in the next video segment. Moreover, FLIGBY also provides immediate feedback related to the situational progress but also features extensive learning opportunities via the in-game advisor Mr. FLIGBY’s tailored feedback. In this way, serious games, such as FLIGBY, provide innovative technological solutions for reduced-risk learning environments and encourage experimentation in decision-making and entrepreneurial behavior (Buzady, 2017). The ultimate aim of the game is to convey the notion and experience of the Flow mental state, which is the source of psychological capital (Luthans & Church, 2002). Flow, creativity, and an entrepreneurial mindset are related concepts and build on the actual exploration and exploitation of relevant skills and competencies.

FLIGBY consists of 23 episodes and covers a full business cycle of the simulated business, including interviews, board meetings, negotiations, conflict management, and team tensions. FLIGBY has been utilized as a teaching tool since 2015 on BA/MA/MSc/MBA/EMBA programs as well as leadership development training across the globe. It has been played by 10,592 unique players to date. The vast FLIGBY dataset which sits behind the game and is calculated by using the individual players’ actual game decision, contains data about the scoring against FLIGBY’s 29 skills behaviors. Accordingly, it is relevant to explore the impact of FLIGBY in the development of entrepreneurial competencies considering six dimensions, such as innovation and creativity (IC), leadership and management (LM), opportunity identification (OI), strategic decision-making (SD), resource acquisition (RA), and pressure bearing (PB). Then, the following hypothesis has been established:

H1: The adoption of FLIGBY contributed to improving the entrepreneurial competencies (EC).

Entrepreneurial barriers are elements that restrict entrepreneurial activity. Literature identifies several barriers related to limited market knowledge, lack of experience and expertise, risk aversion, and fear of failure (Sandhu et al., 2011; Yordanova & Filipe, 2019). Serious games can help students to overcome those barriers. Serious games can provide entrepreneurs with virtual experiences to manage financial resources, make investment decisions, and understand financial concepts (Platz & Jüttler, 2022). By simulating real-life financial scenarios, these games can help entrepreneurs develop financial literacy and make better-informed decisions about capital. They can also simulate market environments and allow entrepreneurs to conduct virtual market research (Noemi & Máximo, 2014). By engaging with virtual customers, entrepreneurs can gather feedback, test product ideas, and learn about consumer preferences without the costs and risks associated with real-world experiments. Moreover, serious games can provide entrepreneurs with simulated experiences that help develop crucial entrepreneurial skills (Fox et al., 2018). Accordingly, it is relevant to explore the contribution that FLIGBY can give to reduce entrepreneurial barriers in five dimensions, such as lack of support (LS), lack of knowledge (LK), lack of competencies (LC), lack of self-confidence (LSC), and risk aversion (RAV). Therefore, the second hypothesis has been formulated:

H2: The adoption of FLIGBY contributed to reducing entrepreneurial barriers (EB).

Finally, combining serious games with mentorship, traditional entrepreneurship education, and real-world experiences can create a holistic learning approach that fosters an entrepreneurial mindset and intention. Promoting entrepreneurial intention involves encouraging and fostering an entrepreneurial mindset and creating an environment that supports and motivates individuals to pursue entrepreneurial ventures. Serious games can inspire and motivate individuals by presenting success stories, showcasing entrepreneurial role models, and illustrating the rewards and challenges associated with entrepreneurship (Fox et al., 2018; Schrader, 2022). Through engaging narratives and gameplay-mechanics, games can create an emotional connection and generate enthusiasm for entrepreneurship, stimulating entrepreneurial intention among players. Entrepreneurship education goes beyond imparting business skills. It cultivates an entrepreneurial mindset characterized by creativity, adaptability, resilience, and a willingness to embrace uncertainty. This mindset is not only beneficial for starting a business but also for excelling in various professional endeavors, fostering an entrepreneurial culture, and promoting an entrepreneurial approach to problem-solving (Passaro et al., 2018; Tomy & Pardede, 2020). Therefore, it is relevant to explore the role of FLIGBY in increasing entrepreneurial intention. A third hypothesis has been formulated:

H3: The adoption of FLIGBY contributed to increasing entrepreneurial intention (EI).

The formulation of this model allows building the framework depicted in Fig. 1, in which the three hypotheses are presented.

Fig. 1
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Research model and hypothesis formulation

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3 Methodology

3.1 Research Design and Participants

The objective of this study is to analyze the role of adopting a serious game such as the FLIGBY within the context of an entrepreneurship course. FLIGBY was chosen for this study for several reasons. Firstly, the synthesis of serious games in entrepreneurship by Almeida and Simões (2018) compares several alternatives in the field such as SimVenture, Entrexplorer, Virtonomics, among others, and concludes that FLIGBY is the game that presents a greater number of challenges that an entrepreneur faces along the way as compared with the alternatives mentioned. In addition, FLIGBY is very immersive and involves students in an active learning process. Furthermore, the competencies assessed by FLIGBY involve a diverse set of soft skills (e.g., active listening, conflict-management, emotional intelligence, teamwork) that according to Garcez et al. (2022) and Sousa (2018) are essential elements for a successful entrepreneurial process. Additionally, FLIGBY allows recording the game performance according to 29 leadership skills and extracting an individual report of each player’s performance.

The use of a hypothesis test is ideal for comparing two quantitative samples. There are three options for its use: unpaired samples with equal population variances, unpaired samples with different population variances, and paired samples. In this study, the first approach was followed, and considering the small number of existing studies in the entrepreneurship education literature that adopt the randomized pretest-posttest control group as revealed by Longva and Foss (2018), this study precisely adopts this approach as modeled in Fig. 2. Students participating in the experiment (i.e., use of FLIGBY in the entrepreneurship course) were randomly chosen. Students are divided into two groups based on their date of enrollment and the process is carried out by the institution’s administrative services without the intervention of lecturers. FLIGBY was only played by students in the second group. The outcome of the experiment is measured twice, once before the group uses FLIGBY (i.e., pre-test) and once after (i.e., post-test). Reichardt (2019) states that this approach allows studying the effect of a given intervention at different sub-levels of the pre-test and allows quantifying its effect on the outcome of the study. Furthermore, it is also highlighted that this approach reduces the risk of bias since the size of the two groups before and after the experiment remains constant (Reichardt, 2019).

Fig. 2
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Randomized pretest-posttest control group design

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FLIGBY was incorporated as a technological teaching tool within the courses of two polytechnic schools, in the fields of engineering sciences and business sciences. However, not all courses at the two schools were selected for FLIGBY incorporation, which allows the formation of a randomized pretest-posttest control group. The students from the two schools were divided into two groups. In both groups, the topics of innovation and entrepreneurship are addressed, and the students develop in a multidisciplinary working group a business plan for setting up a start-up. The FLIGBY group, however, had the opportunity to play the FLIGBY for a period of two weeks in each academic year. This was the period considered appropriate so that the students could take part in these activities without interfering with lessons in other curricular units. The average time taken to complete the game was between 5 and 6 h. Some students chose to play FLIGBY for a single day, while others opted to spread the activity over two weeks. The pretest occurred one week before students play FLIGBY and the protest occurred one week after the completion of the game. Before students played the game, a 60-minute briefing session was given to the students, during which the game mechanics and the underlying theory of creativity and Flow were explained. Created by world-famous Hungarian-American psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow theory seeks to understand what an individual needs to reach a full state of concentration and motivation in the activities that he or she undertakes. Understanding and being able to reach the mental state of Flow can bring numerous benefits to education. Csikszentmihalyi (2008) states that for an individual to reach the Flow, the following conditions need to be present: (i) encounter challenges or opportunities for action that extend but do not excessively exceed a person’s existing abilities; (ii) have a clear, non-contradictory goal to achieve; and (iii) receive immediate feedback from the activity and on the progress. FLIGBY addresses this challenge by allowing students to develop their skills as they progress through the virtual storyline, complete immersive activities, and encounter constantly new challenges. The level of challenges is customized to the individual characteristics of each student and creates a progression that encourages knowledge acquisition and consolidation.

The sample initially consisted of 573 students from the academic year 2017/18 to 2021/22, as presented in Table 1. However, 22 students dropped out of attending the course throughout the semester in these five years. Therefore, their records were eliminated from the sample. In this sense, the final sample included 551 students, of which 289 belong to the FLIGBY group, while 262 students are in the control group. The distribution of students by gender, age, and years of professional experience is adequately homogeneous: most students are male, between 18 and 24 years old, and have little prior professional experience. Nevertheless, the distribution of students across the groups includes more than 60% of students with some professional experience, and about 15% of them having gained more than 10 years of experience in the labor market. This situation occurs because attendance of the entrepreneurship course is carried out by both daytime students and students with “working-student” status. The latter group of students attends the course in the evening.

Table 1 Profile of the students
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3.2 Survey Structure and Reliability Analysis

Table 2 presents the structure of the survey according to the framework proposed by Liu et al. (2021). The dimensions of the survey are grouped according to the three prisms. The survey consists of 46 questions, of which 22 relate to entrepreneurial skills, 18 relate to barriers to entrepreneurial activity, and 6 questions measure entrepreneurial intention. The survey was modified to remove the distracter items. Therefore, items initially coded in a reserve code were rewritten to standardize the adoption of the same scale throughout the survey. In all three prisms, a 5-level Likert scale was used but with slightly different interpretations. In CE the scale (Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree) is used, in EB the scale (Very unimportant, Unimportant, Neutral, Important, Very important) is adopted, while in EI we have the scale (Very untrue, Untrue, Slightly untrue, Slightly true, True, Very true).

Table 2 Survey structure and questions
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The data were explored and analyzed using Stata v.17. Table 3 presents for each dimension the following fit scales: χ2/df, GFI, CFI, and RMSEA. The χ2/df is always less than 1.2, the GFI and CFI are greater than 0.9, and the RMSEA is less than 0.05. In addition, the Composite Reliability (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Cronbach’s α (CRB) were analyzed for all dimensions. This information is shown in Table 2. All dimensions analyzed have a CR greater than 0.7, the AVE is greater than 0.6, and the CRB is greater than 0.7, which allows us to conclude a good internal consistency and convergent validity.

Table 3 Fit indices of the three prisms (n = 289)
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4 Results

A multivariate analysis was performed considering the two samples of students (e.g., FLIGBY and Control Group). The mean, standard deviation, F value, and significance level were calculated as presented in Table 4. FLIGBY students show a higher mean of entrepreneurial skills for all dimensions (i.e., LC, LM, OI, SD, RA, PB). Despite this, the standard deviation of the FLIGBY Group is slightly higher than that of the Control Group. Significant differences (Sig. < 0.05) are observed for all dimensions of entrepreneurial skills. The FLIGBY Group students’ perception of entrepreneurial barriers is lower than the Control Group students. This occurs for all dimensions of entrepreneurial barriers (i.e., LS, LK, LC, LSC, RAV). For all these dimensions the significance level is less than 0.05. Finally, the entrepreneurial intention in both groups is similar. The significance level is higher than 0.05.

Table 4 Multivariate analysis considering the FLIGBY and Control Group
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Finally, a structured equation model was developed using Stata v.17 software to express the relationship between the constructs considering the adoption of FLIGBY (Fig. 3). In the model entrepreneurial competencies, entrepreneurial barriers, and entrepreneurial intentions are latent endogenous variables. To simplify the representation of the model, the latent subscales of the constructs were not represented. The unstandardized regression coefficient indicates that FLIGBY was relevant to the development of entrepreneurial competence (β = 0.579, p < 1.10− 3) and, therefore, H1 can be accepted. Furthermore, FLIGBY contributed to students having a greater perception of entrepreneurial barriers (β = -0.281, p < 1.10− 3) and, therefore, H2 can be accepted. However, this research did not confirm FLIGBY contributed significantly to the increased entrepreneurial intentions of respondents (β = 0.026, p = 0.162) and, therefore, H3 cannot be verified.

Fig. 3
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Relationship model between the entrepreneurial constructs and FLIGBY learning experience

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5 Discussion

The fundamental issue that has underpinned the definition of the basic objectives of entrepreneurship education has been closely linked to the political, economic, and social movements arising from structural changes in the axes of social and professional integration of graduates. These new realities have made yet more evident the need to prepare individuals to create their own business and assume an entrepreneurial attitude in their organizations. Higher education institutions are required to create stimulating training and educational environments that promote the development of entrepreneurial competencies. Serious games, as an innovative teaching tool with an immersive learning experience, emerge as new educational tools that allow focusing on the main protagonist in the overall learning process, notably the student. According to López et al. (2021), serious games allow the acquisition of knowledge and the learning of new skills through an experience that is student-centered and allows the student to enjoy the learning experience. This new approach to learning also allows for the creation of an educational context that enables the learner to explore, discover, and establish relationships in authentic contexts (Yang, 2021). Students effectively immerse into the role of decision-makers in exploration and experimentation, need to take actions and decisions, overcome yet new challenges, and receive immediate feedback on their decisions.

In this study, FLIGBY was adopted as a serious game for developing entrepreneurial skills. FLIGBY is a serious game in which the learner and player assume the role of General Manager (GM/CEO) of a family-owned winery in California. The fundamental goal of the game is to create a work environment that promotes collaborative work by increasing Flow, while taking a set of key strategic decisions for the future of the company throughout the 23 episodes offered by the game. Empirical data collected by Buzady & Almeida (2019) indicate that the adoption of FLIGBY enhances the development of new skills fundamental to a 21st century graduate in the areas of management, leadership, and entrepreneurship. However, this study presents two fundamental limitations that do not allow us to generalize the results obtained considering the scientific framework of entrepreneurship education. First, the assessment of entrepreneurial competencies does not follow a theoretical framework but is carried out empirically in the context of the game through the inclusion of summative and formative assessment elements. Second, the study only explored the empirical development of entrepreneurial skills but did not explore their role in reducing barriers to entrepreneurial activity and did not assess their effects on students’ entrepreneurial intention.

This study takes a more complete and holistic perspective by exploring the potential of FLIGBY on the three prisms of entrepreneurship education presented by Liu et al. (2021) as the development of entrepreneurial skills, reduction of entrepreneurial barriers, and increase of entrepreneurial intention. According to Liu et al. (2021), the evaluation of entrepreneurship education effectiveness should integrate multiple perspectives and it is in this sense that the development of entrepreneurial skills should integrate six dimensions (i.e., innovation and creativity, leadership and management, opportunity identification, strategic decision-making, resource acquisition, and pressure bearing), the exploration of entrepreneurial barriers should be based on five dimensions (i.e., lack of support, lack of knowledge, lack of competencies, lack of self-confidence, and risk aversion), and the analysis of entrepreneurial intention in a single multidimensional construct that does not exclusively include the intention to create a new start-up in the future. Our research findings allowed us to conclude that the adoption of FLIGBY contributed to the development of entrepreneurial skills. These results allow the confirmation of earlier studies conducted by the studies previously developed by Almeida and Buzady (2019), De Gloria et al. (2019), and Hummel et al. (2021). These authors highlight the role of serious games in developing a more experiential and innovative mode of learning, one that offers players immersive scenarios in more authentic entrepreneurial contexts.

FLIGBY also contributed to the reduction of students’ perceptions of entrepreneurial barriers. There are no studies on the contribution of serious games to this effect that allow us to compare the results of this study. However, the studies developed by Sandhu et al. (2011) and Yordanova and Filipe (2019) allow us to substantiate the role of entrepreneurship education in reducing students’ perceptions of entrepreneurial barriers. It is recognized by Hoogendoorn et al. (2019) that entrepreneurship involves taking risks and overcoming obstacles, and serious games can offer a low-stakes environment for students to try different approaches, learn from their mistakes, and develop problem-solving skills. The traditional approach of reflection and discussion about entrepreneurial activities in the classroom as documented in Walmsley and Wraae (2022) can be complemented by the adoption of serious games. FLIGBY can complement those debriefing sessions and allow students to reflect on their gameplay experiences and engage in discussions about the barriers they faced. This reflection and discussion phase helps students connect their virtual experiences to real-world entrepreneurial challenges, fostering deeper learning and critical thinking.

Finally, the findings did not allow us to conclude that FLIGBY increased entrepreneurial intention. Published studies in this field offer contradictory results on the impact of a serious game on entrepreneurship education. From one perspective, Fellnhofer (2015) and Kriz and Auchter (2016) identified the role of serious games in improving students’ entrepreneurial behavior and intention in higher education; however, this view is contradicted by the results obtained by Newbery et al. (2016)d rez-Pérez et al. (2021) who conclude that serious games have a negative impact on entrepreneurial intention, with particular relevance to the study conducted by Pérez-Pérez et al. (2021), which showed that their negative role is more decisive for students with higher academic performance. This contradictory view of the literature on the phenomenon can be explained by considering the various factors that characterize an individual’s entrepreneurial intention. Entrepreneurial competencies and perceived behavioral control, which are important elements in characterizing entrepreneurial intention, are not the only exclusive elements. Other elements such as personal attitude and environmental factors highlighted in Nowinski et al. (2020) and Sarooghi et al. (2015) emerge, and whose impact of FLIGBY is negligible. Many students look at entrepreneurial activity as unattractive for family and stable career development reasons. Also, FLIGBY does not seem to have an impact on the characterization of environmental factors. Cultural and regulatory norms are inhibitors of entrepreneurial activity as reported by Alawamleh et al. (2023) and Morales et al. (2022), which are important elements in this study, considering the geographical context in which the study is carried out and in which bureaucratic, family, and high tax rate factors emerge, making it less attractive to launch one’s own business. Indeed, the empirical results obtained in our study do not show any impact (either positive or negative). Thus, students’ greater perception of the barriers to entrepreneurship did not inhibit their entrepreneurial intention but helped them to be better prepared for the challenges of launching a new start-up.

6 Conclusions

FLIGBY serious game promotes the development of management, leadership, and entrepreneurial skills among students. This serious game has been incorporated into the pedagogical methodology of an entrepreneurship course in the areas of engineering sciences and business sciences over the past five academic years. Two distinct groups of students were created who had access to the FLIGBY pilot, while students from other courses served as a control group to evaluate the effectiveness of introducing FLIGBY. The FLIGBY pilot students had the opportunity to test their knowledge through 23 scenarios that presented them with various challenges in leadership, team management, setting priorities for action, and strategic management of a family-owned SME company in the wine industry. The results obtained highlight the benefits of incorporating FLIGBY for the development of entrepreneurial skills and for reducing the impact of entrepreneurial barriers. However, the results did not allow for the conclusion that FLIGBY contributes to increasing the entrepreneurial intention of the students.

This study offers both theoretical and practical contributions. From a theoretical perspective, a conceptual model was established to assess the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education, in which FLIGBY is a fundamental instrument in the construction of the entrepreneurship course. Also in the theoretical dimension, the role of this study is highlighted by demonstrating the relevance of FLIGBY for the development of entrepreneurial skills and reducing the perception of risks and barriers related to the entrepreneurship process. This study also offers original contributions by considering a randomized pretest-posttest control group, which allows exploring the impact of FLIGBY on developing entrepreneurial competencies, reducing entrepreneurial barriers, and increasing students’ entrepreneurial intention. In the practical dimension, the results of this study are relevant for higher education institutions to use serious games in general, and FLIGBY in particular, in the construction of an entrepreneurship course. Although the results did not show an increase in entrepreneurial intention among students, the benefits obtained in terms of the development of skills, and the reduction of barriers that inhibit entrepreneurial activity are fundamental for an entrepreneurship course to assume a greater focus on student learning and practical experimentation and may also be relevant for the development of entrepreneurial practices that are not exclusively restricted to the creation of a new start-up.

This study presents some limitations that should be explored: First, the role of the control variables (i.e., gender, age, years of professional experience) in the model constructs was not explored. Therefore, and as future work, exploring the relevance of this information may be interesting for customizing and segmenting the supply of an entrepreneurship course. Second, no information was collected on the source courses. This limitation arises because the entrepreneurship course is attended by several students enrolled on a free basis with very diverse background profiles. Third, the role of student performance in their entrepreneurial intention was not explored. In this sense, and as future work, it is suggested to explore this information. This can be achieved because FLIGBY presents a set of elements of formative and summative assessment, which allows mapping the performance of each student. Thus, a new research question can be proposed to assess whether students with better performance in FLIGBY also have higher entrepreneurial intentions.