1 Background

In its history human being has been using water for drinking and sanitation, developing land for agriculture, transportation, power, recreation, etc. The challenge of managing the environments in which people live becomes more complex and difficult as human populations increase, demands on the resource base increase, and new technologies are developed that let people, willingly or unknowingly, damage their environment at a rapid rate and with less effort than in the past (UNDP, 2008). By doing so, human being has been degrading the basis of his livelihood. This is evidenced by increasing pollution of water, deforestation, flooding, soil erosion and climate change (Gashaw et al., 2014).

In Ethiopia where the livelihood of more than 85% of the population is directly dependent on small-scale rain-fed agriculture the livelihood of most rural community is vulnerable to food security; furthermore, soil erosion, unsustainable farming practices such as encroachment of cropland into remote mountainous areas are the prominent environmental challenge. In addition, steady growth of population (2.7%) and cover dynamics due to clearing of woodlands and grasslands are the top mentioned problems as documented by most sources (Bewket, 2009; Kidanu, 2004). Several other studies elsewhere in Asia and Africa have also critically reported the challenges of cover dynamics and unsustainable agricultural practices resulted from increasing pressure of population (Tor-Gunnar, 2006; Wang & Cheng, 2000; Zhang et al., 2003).

Different studies showed the power of integrating GIS and Remote Sensing technology to analyze the spatial–temporal land use/cover dynamics and investigate its consecutive impacts (Campbell 1997; Cetin, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020; Kibrom & Hedlund, 2000; Roy et al., 1991) Other studies also well-documented extensive land use land cover dynamics and the resultant livelihood disruption in Gamo highlands (Yirgu, 2016; Yirgu et al., 2020).

Domba watershed of Gamo highlands, where the current study was conducted is the home of more than 90,000 people, likely constitutes one of the most affected parts of the Ethiopian highland system both in terms of land resource degradation and destitute livelihood of the marginalize community locally named as mana, which means potters. The term mana is common among the Gamo’s, Wolayita’s, Dawuro, Keficho’s and other communities of Southwestern Ethiopia.

Subsistence agriculture, traditional craftworks such as weaving, pottery, tannery and iron smiths are the basis of livelihood and backbone of rural economy in Domba watershed. Traditionally, the Gamo people (community of the study area) are organized into artisans and farmers (non-artisans) based on profession. The artisans are skillful people in handicrafts and collectively known as “hiilancha”, meaning experts. In the project area, social position of the craft communities is considered to be below the non-artisans. They are economically marginalized and socially segregated, and regarded by farming community as a “polluters.” They earn their livelihood by making clay-made utensils on small-sized infertile homestead plots. But, mass production and dominance of plastic materials in the local markets, and above all the absence of clay, raw material to make clay utensils make their livelihood more challenging. The aim of this study is to examine impacts of land use/cover dynamics on the rural livelihood of potter communities in the study area using GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, socio-economic as well as bio-physical data.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study area

River Domba, from which the watershed named, is a perennial river, which makes its source from Gana Kare ridges and drained into River Omo. The research was conducted in Domba watershed, which is part of the Gamo highlands of Southern Ethiopia. The watershed is found in three districts of Gamo zone, namely Dita, Kuch and Dera Malo and geographically, it is located between 37°14′ 30′’ to 37°27′E longitude and 6°15′15′’ N to 6°27′30′’N latitude (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Location map of Domba watershed, Ethiopia

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Meteorological reports indicate that the watershed has a tropical climate with a bimodal rainfall pattern with mean annual rainfall and temperature 1230.8 mm and 23.3 °C, respectively. According to the three study district population offices, in 2018 population of the watershed was 92,726, of which about 51.0% are female (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Land use/cover dynamics (1976–2018) of Domba watershed, SNNPR, Ethiopia

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The source of livelihood of the people in the watershed is subsistence mixed agriculture and supported by non-farm and off-farm activities. Meager household income, landlessness, outmigration of youth population to major cities and large commercial farms in search for better living condition best characterize the livelihood of community in the watershed.

Orthic Acrisols (95%) and Dystric Nitisols (5%) are the dominant soil types of the watershed. According to FAO (1990), the soils of the watershed are developed mainly from volcanic rocks (basalt) and Volcanic Tuff. Acrisols, which is found in almost all parts of the watershed, is clay-rich tropical soil occurs on sloping terrain. They are acidic and have low to medium nutrient content; as a result it has limited agricultural potential. While reddish laterite soils, Nitisols are found in limited pockets of the watershed (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Hillside farming in Domba watershed, Ethiopia

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2.2 The people

The ‘Gamo’, people of the study area, have the characteristics of high-density Enset horticulturalist and well known by their traditional weaving and indigenous terrace farming culture. They cultivate a variety of crops, including cereals, fruits and the all-important staple enset (Ensete Ventricosum). They are hierarchically categorizing themselves into three social strata: Mala (highest prestige and farmers and weavers); Mana (potters); and Degala (lowest prestige and ironsmiths and hide workers). As this piece of research is about artesian, many people consider them as ritually impure and therefore any contact between the Mala (ritually pure) and the artisans that are not culturally sanctioned will result in the disturbance of the ancestors, which could result in the infertility of the people, land, and nature (Arthur, 2013).

Although artisans identify themselves ethnically as Gamo and speak the same language and dialects as others in their community, they also speak an ‘argot’ or ritual language to protect craft knowledge. In the study area, Women potters are working and making decisions concerning all aspects of the production, digging the clay, carrying the clay, firing the vessels and carrying the pots to the market. As to the source of clay for pot making is concerned, each village has its own set of clay sources, which are either mined by individuals or with other potters in the village.

2.3 Data acquisition and collection

Three temporal resolutions such as Landsat imageries of 1976, 1995 and 2018 were used to analyze the land use/cover dynamics. The data were acquired from the USGS portal and the metadata description is summarized in Table 1

Table 1 Description of remote sensing data that were used in the study
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In the study, primary data were collected from sample respondents interview, focus group discussions and personal observation to the study area. While secondary data were secured from Central Statistical Authority, weather stations, district demography and agriculture departments, website and the Ethiopian Geospatial Agency.

2.4 Sampling procedure and sample size determination

During sampling procedure multi-stage sampling was utilized. In the first stage, Domba watershed was purposefully chosen using non-probability sampling technique due to the presence of dynamic land use/cover pattern and deteriorated livelihood of the potter community. Following this, two sample kebeles, namely Tukana Gana Woyza and Goza were purposefully selected considering the landlessness and seriousness of livelihood constraints of potter communities. Finally, to administer household survey, the total household heads i.e., 98 target populations were considered. Interview, focus group discussion, personal observation and transect walks across the study area were utilized to gather data from the sampled kebles.

2.5 Methods of data analysis

Image data analysis was done in GIS platform using the software ArcGIS and ERDAS for the applications of geometric corrections, radiometric corrections, and image classification with GPS data, overlay analysis, change detection and accuracy assessment to delineate land use/cover change dynamics.

2.5.1 Image preprocessing

Geometric corrections were done with the nearest neighbor sample technique method. This method does not change the pixel values. Therefore, supervised classification can be addressed accurately. Then, radiometric correction techniques were applied to make the data error free from the clouds and other atmospheric disturbances.

2.5.2 Image classification and analysis

Digital image processing of satellite data has been carried out using ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS software. To map major land use/cover classification first unsupervised and then supervised classifications were used. For verification purpose, ground truth data were collected from randomly selected sites using Geographic Positioning System, GPS. Furthermore, high-resolution images were used (from Google earth) as a source of data for inaccessible localities. Following these procedures, using maximum likelihood classifier both spatial and temporal land use/cover maps were determined (Lilles & Kiefer, 1999). Furthermore, pattern and direction of changes in land use/cover have been detected.

2.5.3 Accuracy assessment

Accuracy assessment of land use and cover layers were carried out by comparing sample land use/cover class of the classified and percentage layer. The difference between actual agreement classified map and chance agreement of random classifier compared to reference data or what we call Kappa coefficient was computed using the formula after Congalton and Green (2009). Then overall accuracy was computed by dividing sum of correctly classified values (diagonals) over total number of randomly generated reference values of the error matrix (Lillesand et al., 2008).

$$K_{{{\text{hat}}}} = \frac{{N\sum^{k}_{i = 1} X_{ab} - \sum^{k}_{i = 1} (X_{a} \times X_{b} )}}{{N^{2} - \sum^{k}_{i = 1} (X_{a} \times X_{b} )}}$$
(1)

where: Khat = koppa coefficient; N is total number of values; \(\sum^{k}_{i = 1} (X_{ab} )\) is observed accuracy; and \(\sum^{k}_{i = 1} (X_{a} \times X_{b} )\) is chance accuracy.

According to Lillesand, the minimum level of accuracy in the identification of land cover categories from remote sensor data should be at least 80%. The accuracy assessment value of Domba watershed was comparable with Lillesand’s finding. Thus, it is possible to suggest that our estimate was more accurate and reliable. Percentage of land use/cover class changes of the two consecutive periods were computed using the following equation.

$${\text{Change}}(\% ) = \frac{{A_{{tn}} - A_{{tn}} - 1}}{{A_{{tn}} - 1}} \times 100$$
(2)

where: Atn is area of specific land use/land cover class at time tn, Atn-1 is area of the same land use/cover class at time tn − 1, Change (%) is percent change in the area of specific land use/land cover class between times tn and tn − 1.

To analyze data on determinants of choice of livelihood strategies and constraints of livelihood multinomial logistic regression model (Greene, 2000) and descriptive statistics were used. Accordingly, in the study, dependent variables of the model that are determinants of rural households’ choice of livelihood strategy are:

  • Y = 0, if the choice lies in non-farm livelihood strategies alone,

  • Y = 1, if the choice lies in off-farm livelihood strategies alone,

  • Y = 2, if the choice lies in non-farm + off-farm livelihood strategies.

Furthermore, seven independent variables used in the analysis are stated in Table 6.

3 Results and discussions

3.1 Land use/cover dynamics of Domba watershed (1976–2018)

In the studied periods, six dominant land use/cover types were identified, in 1976 woodland (29.8%) and grassland (19.6%) occupied the dominant land cover types, which shared about half (49.4%) of the study watershed. Contrarily, croplands and settlement, which jointly shared 31.5% at the beginning of the study period revealed progressive expansion in 2018 and reached to more than two-third area (67.6%) of the watershed (Table 2).

Table 2 Land use/cover dynamics (1976, 1995 and 2018) of Domba watershed
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In the studied periods major deforestation took place between 1995 and 2018, destroying about 72.7% of the 1976 forest and woodland covers. Therefore, encroachment of cultivation into woodland, grassland and forestland has destroyed soil structure, increased soil erosion in the mountainous part of the watershed (Table 3). Most studies that were carried out in Northern highlands of Ethiopia found decline of forestland and grassland that was resulted from the encroachment of croplands (Asmamaw et al., 2011; Alemu et al., 2015 and Hassen and Assen 2018).

Table 3 Population density in Domba watershed (1999–2018)
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In response to the unprecedented conversion, area of cultivated lands was 29% of the watershed between 1976 and 2018, but majority of the expansion taken place between 1995 and 2018 (i.e., 3545.9 ha). Contrarily, due to plantation of eucalyptus tree an increase in forestlands was reported by Tesfaye et al. (2014) in Gilgel Tekeze watershed in Northern Ethiopia.

3.2 Drivers of land use/cover change in Domba watershed

The data obtained from the district population offices depicted that in 2018 population of the watershed was 92,726. In 1999, it was 50,766, which showed an alarming increase in twenty years, which showed a gross annual increase by 4.2%, while mean annual population growth of the watershed was 2.7%. This figure is much more than the national average growth rate of 2.5% (CSA, 2018).

The population density of the watershed is increased from 252 person/km2 in 1999 to 460 person/km2 in 2018. Contrarily, agricultural density, which is the real measure of rural population per cultivated land, it decreased from 15 persons/ha to 10 persons/ha in 1999 and 2018, respectively. Survey data further depicted that average farm holding size in the watershed is 0.6 ha/household. This is far below the sustainable average farm size of 2.5 hectare per household in the Ethiopian situation. The result revealed that most grasslands and forestlands are converted into croplands to support the newly emerging households into the farming economy.

Consistent with this finding, Kidanu et al. (2013) in Bale Mountains of Southeast Ethiopia; Kindu et al., (2013) in Munesa Shashemane areas of the Ethiopian highlands, Minta et al. (2014) and Molla (2015) in Central Rift Valley Regions of Ethiopia have reported accelerated vegetation dynamics in correspondent with population growth. Furthermore, Zeleke (2000) in his studies conducted in Northwestern Ethiopian Highlands also strongly commented the effects of population pressure on landscape dynamics.

If population of the watershed continued to grow at the current rate (2.7%) and corrective measures were not taken in time, the remaining wetlands, grassland and forestlands will be converted into farmland within two and half decades. Considering that if the population growth rate remained constant in the watershed, it will double within 36 years from now. Thus, from the analysis it is possible to suggest that population growth would induce increasing demand of land for agriculture, settlement and trees for fuel and construction purposes, which further exacerbate soil erosion in the watershed.

In the study area, Livestock is a source of means of subsistence to farming community beyond supply of manure (locally called pito) for enset (Ensete ventricosum) and cereal fields. The total livestock population of the study area was about 133,675, which is equivalent to 65,809.1 Total Livestock Unit, TLU of which 67.6% are cattle, while the remaining 26.7% was cattle, 3.7% was sheep & goats, and the remaining 3.7% are Mules, Horses and Donkeys (Table 4).

Table 4 Livestock population in Domba watershed, Southern Ethiopia
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In this case, the aggregate stocking level of the watershed was 10.3 TLU/ha. In the study conducted in East African semi-arid rangelands, Pratt and Gwynne (1977) reported annually 5.5-hectare lands (0.2 TLU/ha) as an optimal area for supporting one TLU. Using Pratt’s and Gwynne’s estimate, the stocking rate of the study watershed would be 0.2 TLU/51.3 ha of pasture lands. This shows that the livestock population beyond the carrying capacity and could be the major cause for the prevailing resource degradation in the area. Contrary to our finding, Mugerwa (1992) and Byenkya (2004) identified 1.63 and 2.27 ha/TLU, respectively, in their studies conducted in semi-arid areas of East Africa. While it was 2.5–3.5 ha/TLU in studies conducted by Hocking and Mattick (1993) in East Africa. Similarly, the study conducted by Derege et al. (2019) in Eastern Somali region, Ethiopia reported 0.3 TLU/ha of pasture land.

3.3 Livelihood constraints of potter communities in Domba watershed

In the watershed because of the interacting factors, the livelihood of the potter community including their craft products did not showed much progress instead it is deteriorating from time to time. Gamo potters are predominately women, husbands and other male family members occasionally may help with certain aspects of pottery production and distribution. The survey result depicted that among varying hindering factors biased perception of Gamo community on potters and the absence of shelter to store the unsold materials for the next market are the top mentioned challenge, which was rated by all (100%) respondents.

In the study area, non-artisans perceive the potter’s person of unequal social group. Because of such a biased attitude, potters are highly segregated, marginalized and disrespected in social political and even in their economic settings. In the community artisans cannot marry with the non-artisans, they cannot hold social leadership role, unable to decide on community’s matter and even they are not allowed to own farmland, except provided small infertile piece of land in distant location from the common people for their housing. Therefore, such a lower social position was among the major cause that is responsible for their deteriorating economic status in the area. Consistent with this finding, Sirika (2008) study on socio-economic status of handcraft women among Mecca Oromo community in Western Ethiopia reported segregation of handcraft communities in their locality. This finding was also comparable with the ceramic Ethno-archaeological study of Gamo community by Arthur’s (2000).

Poor market access was among the factors that constrained the livelihood of potter community in the watershed. In recent days due to the mass production and availability of plastic products in the rural markets indigenous potter made utensils got less demand. As a result, utensils produced for a weekly market did not sold in full, potters take the remaining vessels back to their home, because they do not have shop to keep them until the next market day, instead they sold in much lesser price. Therefore, absence of shop was among the top mentioned constraints (rated by 100% respondents) that lowers the livelihood of potters in the watershed.

As stated on Table 5 that lack of access to source of raw material (clay & baking wood) for pottery vessel production was the other constrain replied by 98.0% of the respondents. As mentioned above, due to their lower social status, potters have no or limited farmland on which they can get their livelihood including clay. According to the key informants, mala community, who have land did not allow potters to mine clay on their holdings, but this is becoming more difficult as landowners feel that clay mining destroys their valuable farmland. One of our key informants ‘Zarume’ reported us regarding the shortage of clay material.

We do not have land from where we mine clay to make pottery vessels. We dig clay from others holdings without his/her recognition. Conditionally if land owner saw us while digging, we hide ourselves somewhere, but if he/ she got us they hit us, this is common occurrence.

Table 5 Household’s response to livelihood challenges of the potter communities in Domba watershed
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In support to the aforementioned findings, about 88.8% of the respondents replied landlessness as their major problem. As part of social segregation, in Gamo community artisans never hold possessions, if so they are given marginal infertile small pieces of plot in distant locality, which is meant only to construct their dwellings. Such practice is common by the neighboring peoples such as Wolaita’s, Dawuro’s and Gofa’s (Arthur 2002).

As stated above, mass production of plastic, metallic and ceramic utensils flooded the rural markets and they got preference by rural households both in quality and durability can easily replace the utility of indigenous artisan products. As a result, pottery utensils that were made using age-old technologies lost recognition by rural people, which finally affects the economic potential of the potters. This resulted to less bargaining power of the potter community to their products. In response to this, price of pottery vessels falls below the production cost. That is why 96.9% of the respondents rated low pottery price and poor bargaining power as their major challenges.

Survey result further noted that about 93.5% of the respondents rated the absence of handicraft Association or craft cooperatives as a challenge to the potters. It is well noted that the presence of well-organized associations can increase access to good business, market expansion, fight in favor of the right of its members and even can enhance access to advocacy. In agreement to this finding, Bartels (2006) in his study conducted in western Wellega, Ethiopia reported the importance of well-organized handicraft association for increased profitability & productivity of its members.

To improve the quality pottery utensils and thereby income from the products there is a need to promote training on areas such as business management, marketing and designing of the handicraft products. In this regard, about 74.5% of the target population rated the need for training. Consistent with this result, study conducted by Sirika (2008) noted its importance for self-sustaining craft production business. The author further stated the significance of training to raise the demand of craft products either for local and tourist markets beyond the livelihood improvement of the craft communities in his study conducted among Mecca Oromo of Western Wellega, Ethiopia.

For varying reasons noted above, in the study area hand craft sectors of economy got inadequate attention/support from both the government and non-government agencies and research institutions. This is evidenced by the fact that during data collection or beyond, the researchers unable to get numerical data of potters and written facts of their economic and social background in district government offices. The authors accessed shelved, rural development policy document, but details of the policy document neglect the role of rural craft industries in improving the economy of the rural households. Instead this document was there without practical implementation.

That is why a large portion of the study population (87.8%) rated lack of political commitment as the major challenge of potter communities. One of our informants witnessed the fact that they never elect potters as a leader in the local administrative unit and further reported the reluctance of district administrative organs to show support in the improvement of their day to day life. Further more women discussant reported that the available on-government agents in the district never dealt on sustainably benefiting projects of the potter communities. To avoid the current constraints of the community, focus group discussants noted the need for diversified household income sources. They urged support of improved varieties of goats, sheep, cow and credit facilities to improve their livelihood.

3.4 Determinants of choices of livelihood strategies of potter communities in Domba watershed

The Multinomial logistic regression model result revealed the following seven explanatory variables were found to be affecting choice of livelihood strategies.

3.5 Age of the household head (AGE)

This variable was found to be negatively influence household decision to choose to off-farm activity at 1% level of significance and positively influence household’s decision to choose to on-farm activity at 5% level of significance. This implies that as age of the household increases, their choice for off-farm decrease and their choice for on-farm activity increase. As it can be seen from Table 6 that the likelihood of a household’s choice of off-farm activity decreased by 0.7% and household’s choice to on-farm activity increased by 0.1% as age of the households increased by one year. The result is congruent with previous studies by Lemi (2005) and Berhanu (2007) who found that age had a significant influence on household livelihood diversification choice.

Table 6 Multinomial logit regression result of households choice to livelihood strategies
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3.6 Sex of the households (SEX)

Sex of the households was positively correlated with household’s decision to choose on-farm plus off-farm activity at 10% level of significance. This implies that male-headed households tend to participate in both on-farm plus off-farm activity as compared with female-headed households by keeping all other factors constant. The likelihood choice of households to choose both on-farm plus off-farm activity increased by 22% and vice versa for male households. The result is found to be in line with the result of Lemi (2005) and Berhanu (2007) who identified that female-headed households have difficulty of participation in off-farm activities because of cultural barriers and more responsible for care of children, make food for household rather than for market.

3.7 Family size of the households (FMSZE)

This variable has a positive relationship with household’s livelihood decision to choose off-farm activity at 10% level of significance. This implies that households with large family size tends to participate in off-farm income because of culturally male household heads did not engage themselves to produce hand craft materials. This age-old cultural practice enabled them to diversify their choice to off-farm activity to meet basic needs of the family members. The likelihood choice households to choose off-farm activity increased by 1.3% as the number of family increased by one unity keeping all other factors constant. This finding is consistent to that of Kahn (2000).

3.8 Annual cash income (ACIN)

Annual cash income had a negative relationship with households’ choice for on-farm activity and positively related with household choice for both on-farm plus off-farm activity at 1% level of significance. This implies that households with higher annual cash income had a tendency to diversify their choice across on-farm plus off-farm activities. The likelihood choice households to choose to on-farm activity decreased by 0.004% and increased by 0.004% to choose to both on-farm plus off-farm activity keeping all other factors constant. This result is consistent with the finding of Samuel and Zewde (2010) who reported that households with large income are more likely to diversify their livelihood strategies into off -farm activities. The possible reason can be farm households with large total income can invest in alternative livelihood strategies, especially in off-farm activities.

3.9 Total livestock ownership measured in TLU (TLU)

This variable was found to be negatively affecting the household livelihood choice to choose off-farm activity at 1% level of significance and positively correlated with household’s livelihood choice to choose on-farm activity at 10% level of significance. The marginal effect coefficient of TLU can be interpreted as the likelihood of households to choose off-farm activity has been decreased by 10.6% and the likelihood choice of households to choose on-farm activity increased by 8.6% as total livestock ownership (TLU) increased by one unit keeping all other factors constant. Thus our result is found to be in line with the result of Yizengaw (2015) and Adey (2016) who found that When the livestock size increase by one TLU the probability of households’ choice of livelihood strategies of off-farm activity alone also increased by 2.6% of marginal effect.

3.10 Distance from market to dwelling (DSMKT)

Distance from market to dwellings has a significant positive impact on the livelihood choice of households with both on-farm and off-farm activities. This suggests that the likelihood of diversified livelihood choice increases with distance from market. This result is contrary to our expectation because if market is situated at distant location, potters should travel for long distance carrying their clay vessels. It is known fact that decrease in market distance could not result in decrease in choice of livelihood rather the contrary is true. This finding was consistent with Gecho, 2017 and Debele and Desta (2016). They reported that as market distance increases from the residence, household’s non-farm and off-farm income diversification would be discouraged.

3.11 Credit Use by the Household

Access to credit facility was found to have a significant positive effect on livelihood diversification for households operating off-farm activity and off-farm and on-farm activities. Thus, providing credit for resource poor potters will enhance livelihood diversification by reducing their financial constraints and encourage them to invest in other income-generating activities, beyond supporting them to producing quality clay vessel. This finding was consistent with Debele and Desta (2016) report, which stated that providing credit facility will enable poor households to diversify their livelihood. But contrary to the expectation, credit use by the potter households found to have a significant negative impact of choosing diversified livelihood a strategy for those households using on-farm activity. This implies that participating in diversified livelihood strategy by household drops by 9.9% for a household using credit. This finding is in agreement with previous studies conducted by Berhanu (2007) in Gena Bosa district, Ethiopia.

4 Conclusion

At the beginning of the study year, woodlands and grasslands were the dominant land cover types, occupies over 49% of the study area and in 2018, it was dwindled to 22.9%. Contrarily, croplands and settlement, which jointly shared 31.5% at the beginning of the study year and increased to 67.6% at the end of the study period, suggesting that demographic dynamism (2.9%) could be responsible for such an environmental change. As a result, landlessness, soil erosion and resultant soil nutrient depletion along with obsolete farming practices could result in destitute livelihood to most communities in the watershed, especially to the potter households.

Potters, who are belonged to social class known as “mana” are among socially, economically and politically marginalized part of community in Domba watershed. In the household, it is the women potter who is economically vibrant that support the livelihood of the household with their meager income from sale of clay made products. But social exclusion, landlessness, the absence of shop to display &keep unsold craft utensils, the absence of clay to make utensils, lack of political commitment and the absence of handcraft associations are among others the top mentioned challenges of potter households in the watershed. Furthermore, on-farm and off-farm activities shared more than 86% means of income of the studied households. Sex, age, access to credit facility, distance from market and owner ship of livestock are major determinants of household choice to livelihood strategies by potter households.

Therefore, in order to rehabilitate progressively depleting soil resource and rehabilitate degraded landscape, there is a need to implement vegetative and physical soil and water management measure through public and community-based intervention approaches. Thus, supporting physical Soil and water conservation structures with vegetative measures is very important for strengthening their effectiveness in improving fertility of soil and decrease soil erosion in the watershed. Furthermore, in order to lower demographic pressure, government should be committed to family planning interventions so that the fast-growing population (2.7%) could be managed and resource utilization should be friendly.

In order to improve the livelihood of marginalized potter households, government and the stakeholders should support in capacity building through education and training so as to improve production of craft materials and improve their marketing skills. There is a need to give training regarding marketing, business management and design of utensils. To sell the unsold materials in the coming market, potters need shop/ shelter to keep and display their utensils; otherwise, they sold in unreasonable price, which negatively affects their livelihood. So stakeholders should support them with shop/shelter so as to keep the unsold utensils for the next market is crucial.