Abstract
Raindrop size distribution (DSD) plays a crucial role in enhancing the accuracy of radar quantitative precipitation estimates in the Tibetan Plateau (TP). However, there is a notable scarcity of long-term, high-resolution observations in this region. To address this issue, long-term observations from a two-dimensional video disdrometer (2DVD) were leveraged to refine the radar and satellite-based algorithms for quantifying precipitation in the hinterland of the TP. It was observed that weak precipitation (R<1, mm h−1) accounts for 86% of the total precipitation time, while small raindrops (D<2 mm) comprise 99% of the total raindrop count. Furthermore, the average spectral width of the DSD increases with increasing rain rate. The DSD characteristics of convective and stratiform precipitation were discussed across five different rain rates, revealing that convective precipitation in Yangbajain (YBJ) exhibits characteristics similar to maritime-like precipitation. The constrained relationships between the slope Λ and shape μ, Dm and Nw of gamma DSDs were derived. Additionally, we established a correlation between the equivalent diameter and drop axis ratio and found that raindrops on the TP attain a nearly spherical shape. Consequently, the application of the rainfall retrieval algorithms of the dual-frequency precipitation radar in the TP is improved based on the statistical results of the DSD.
摘 要
雨滴谱(DSD)在提高青藏高原雷达定量降水估计的准确性方面发挥着关键作用。然而,这一地区缺乏长期、高分辨率的观测资料。为解决这一问题,本文利用二维视频滴谱仪(2DVD)在青藏高原腹地展开连续、长期的降水观测实验。观测结果表明,弱降水(R < 1 mm h−1)占总降水时间的86%,而小雨滴(D < 2 mm)约占总雨滴数的99%。此外,DSD的平均谱宽随雨强的增加而增大。我们分析了对流性降水和层状云降水的DSD特征,发现西藏羊八井地区的对流性降水表现出小雨滴浓度高、接近海洋型降水的特点。本文推导出了DSD的斜率参数Λ和形状参数μ之间的约束关系,并建立了等效直径和雨滴轴比之间的相关性,发现青藏高原上的雨滴相较于低海拔地区形状更接近球形。基于DSD的统计结果,拟合了Ze-R和Ze-Dm关系,以改进星载和地基双频降水雷达在青藏高原腹地的降水估测算法。
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Atlas, D., R. C. Srivastava, and R. S. Sekhon, 1973: Doppler radar characteristics of precipitation at vertical incidence. Rev. Geophys., 11, 1–35, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG011i001p00001.
Beard, K. V., and C. Chuang, 1987: A new model for the equilibrium shape of raindrops. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1509–1524, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1987)044<1509:Anmfte>2.0.Co;2.
Brandes, E. A., G. F. Zhang, and J. Vivekanandan, 2002: Experiments in rainfall estimation with a polarimetric radar in a subtropical environment. J. Appl. Meteorol., 41, 674–685, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<0674:Eirewa>2.0.Co;2.
Brandes, E. A., G. F. Zhang, and J. Vivekanandan, 2004: Drop size distribution retrieval with polarimetric radar: Model and application. J. Appl. Meteorol., 43, 461–475, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<0461:Dsdrwp>2.0.Co;2.
Bringi, V. N., V. Chandrasekar, J. Hubbert, E. Gorgucci, W. L. Randeu, and M. Schoenhuber, 2003: Raindrop size distribution in different climatic regimes from disdrometer and dualpolarized radar analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 354–365, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0354:Rsdidc>2.0.Co;2.
Bumke, K., and J. Seltmann, 2012: Analysis of measured drop size spectra over land and sea. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2012, 296575, https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/296575.
Cao, Q., G. F. Zhang, E. Brandes, T. Schuur, A. Ryzhkov, and K. Ikeda, 2008: Analysis of video disdrometer and polarimetric radar data to characterize rain microphysics in oklahoma. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 47, 2238–2255, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008jamc1732.1.
Cao, Q., G. F. Zhang, E. A. Brandes, and T. J. Schuur, 2010: Polarimetric radar rain estimation through retrieval of drop size distribution using a bayesian approach. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 49, 973–990, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009jamc2227.1.
Chakravarty, K., and P. E. Raj, 2013: Raindrop size distributions and their association with characteristics of clouds and precipitation during monsoon and post-monsoon periods over a tropical Indian station. Atmospheric Research, 124, 181–189, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.01.005.
Chandrasekar, V., W. A. Cooper, and V. N. Bringi, 1988: Axis ratios and oscillations of raindrops. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1323–1333, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<1323:Araoor>2.0.Co;2.
Chang, W. Y., T.-C. C. Wang, and P.-L. Lim, 2009: Characteristics of the raindrop size distribution and drop shape relation in typhoon systems in the western pacific from the 2D video disdrometer and NCU C-band polarimetric radar. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 26, 1973–1993, 1973–1993, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009jtecha1236.1.
Chang, Y., X. L. Guo, J. Tang, and G. X. Lu, 2019: Aircraft measurement campaign on summer cloud microphysical properties over the Tibetan Plateau. Scientific Reports, 9, 4912, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41514-5.
Chen, B. J., J. Yang, and J. P. Pu, 2013: Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in the meiyu season observed in eastern China. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan Ser. II, 91, 215–227, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2013-208.
Chen, B. J., J. Wang, and D. L. Gong, 2016: Raindrop size distribution in a midlatitude continental squall line measured by thies optical disdrometers over East China. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 55, 621–634, https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-15-0127.1.
Chen, B. J., Z. Q. Hu, L. P. Liu, and G. F. Zhang, 2017: Raindrop size distribution measurements at 4,500 m on the Tibetan plateau during TIPEX-III. J. Geophys. Res., 122, 11092–11106, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jd027233.
Fu, Y. F., G. S. Liu, G. X. Wu, R. C. Yu, Y. P. Xu, Y. Wang, R. Li, and Q. Liu, 2006: Tower mast of precipitation over the central Tibetan Plateau summer. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L05802, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005gl024713.
Huang, G.-J., V. N. Bringi, D. Moisseev, W. A. Petersen, L. Bliven, and D. Hudak, 2015: Use of 2D-video disdrometer to derive mean density-size and Ze–SR relations: Four snow cases from the light precipitation validation experiment. Atmospheric Research, 153, 34–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.07.013.
Kim, H.-L., M.-K. Suk, H.-S. Park, G.-W. Lee, and J.-S. Ko, 2016: Dual-polarization radar rainfall estimation in Korea according to raindrop shapes obtained by using a 2-D video disdrometer. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 9, 3863–3878, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-3863-2016.
Kollias, P., E. E. Clothiaux, M. A. Miller, B. A. Albrecht, G. L. Stephens, and T. P. Ackerman, 2007: Millimeter-wavelength radars: New frontier in atmospheric cloud and precipitation research. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 88, 1608–1624, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-88-10-1608.
Kozu, T., K. K. Reddy, S. Mori, M. Thurai, J. T. Ong, D. N. Rao, and T. Shimomai, 2006: Seasonal and diurnal variations of raindrop size distribution in asian monsoon region. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan Ser. II, 84A, 195–209, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.84A.195.
Kruger, A., and W. F. Krajewski, 2002: Two-dimensional video disdrometer: A description. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 19, 602–617, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2002)019<0602:Tdvdad>2.0.Co;2.
Lee, G. W., 2006: Sources of errors in rainfall measurements by polarimetric radar: Variability of drop size distributions, observational noise, and variation of relationships between R and polarimetric parameters. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 23, 1005–1028, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech1899.1.
Liao, L., and R. Meneghini, 2019: A modified dual-wavelength technique for Ku- and Ka-band radar rain retrieval. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 58, 3–18, https://doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-18-0037.1.
Lu, C. S., and Coauthors, 2023: Observational study of relationships between entrainment rate, homogeneity of mixing, and cloud droplet relative dispersion. Atmospheric Research, 293, 106900, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2023.106900.
Lu, D. R., W. L. Pan, and Y. N. Wang, 2018: Atmospheric profiling synthetic observation system in Tibet. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 35, 264–267, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-017-7251-7.
Luo, L., J. Guo, H. N. Chen, M. L. Yang, M. X. Chen, H. Xiao, J. L. Ma, and S. T. Li, 2021: Microphysical characteristics of rainfall observed by a 2DVD disdrometer during different seasons in Beijing, China. Remote Sensing, 13, 2303, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13122303.
Lü, J. J., Y. Zhou, Z. K. Fu, C. S. Lu, Q. Huang, J. Sun, Y. Zhao, and S. J. Niu, 2023: Variability of raindrop size distribution during a regional freezing rain event in the Jianghan plain of central China. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 40, 725–742, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-022-2131-1.
Lyu, J. J., H. W. Xiao, Y. C. Du, L. N. Sha, Y. Q. Deng, W. K. Jia, S. J. Niu, Y. Zhou, and G. Q. Pang, 2022: Variations of raindrop size distribution and radar retrieval in outer rainbands of typhoon mangkhut (2018). Journal of Meteorological Research, 36, 500–519, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-022-1134-2.
Ma, Z. Q., Z. Shi, Y. Zhou, J. F. Xu, W. Yu, and Y. Y. Yang, 2017: A spatial data mining algorithm for downscaling TMPA 3B43 V7 data over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with the effects of systematic anomalies removed. Remote Sensing of Environment, 200, 378–395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.08.023.
Marshall, J. S., and W. M. K. Palmer, 1948: The distribution of raindrops with size. J. Meteorol., 5, 165–166, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0165:Tdorws>2.0.Co;2.
Milbrandt, J. A., and M. K. Yau, 2005: A multimoment bulk microphysics parameterization. Part I: Analysis of the role of the spectral shape parameter. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3051–3064, https://doi.org/10.1175/jas3534.1.
Mishchenko, M. I., L. D. Travis, and D. W. Mackowski, 1996: T-matrix computations of light scattering by nonspherical particles: A review. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 55, 535–575, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4073(96)00002-7.
Nespor, V., W. F. Krajewski, and A. Kruger, 2000: Wind-induced error of raindrop size distribution measurement using a two-dimensional video disdrometer. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 17, 1483–1492, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<1483:Wieors>2.0.Co;2.
Porcù, F., L. P. D’Adderio, F. Prodi, and C. Caracciolo, 2014: Rain drop size distribution over the Tibetan Plateau. Atmospheric Research, 150, 21–30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.07.005.
Ryzhkov, A. V., S. E. Giangrande, and, T. J. Schuur, 2005: Rainfall Estimation with a Polarimetric Prototype of WSR-88D. J. Appl. Meteorol., 44, 502–515, https://doi.org/10.1175/jam2213.1.
Schönhuber, M., G. Lammer, and W. L. Randeu, 2007: One decade of imaging precipitation measurement by 2D-video-distrometer. Advances in Geosciences, 10, 85–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-10-85-2007.
Stout, G. E., and E. A. Mueller, 1968: Survey of relationships between rainfall rate and radar reflectivity in the measurement of precipitation. J. Appl. Meteorol., 7, 465–474, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1968)007<0465:Sorbrr>2.0.Co;2.
Thurai, M., and V. N. Bringi, 2005: Drop axis ratios from a 2D video disdrometer. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 22, 966–978, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech1767.1.
Thurai, M., C. R. Williams, and V. N. Bringi, 2014: Examining the correlations between drop size distribution parameters using data from two side-by-side 2D-video disdrometers. Atmospheric Research, 144, 95–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.01.002.
Thurai, M., P. N. Gatlin, and V. N. Bringi, 2016: Separating stratiform and convective rain types based on the drop size distribution characteristics using 2D video disdrometer data. Atmospheric Research, 169, 416–423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.04.011.
Tokay, A., and D. A. Short, 1996: Evidence from tropical raindrop spectra of the origin of rain from stratiform versus convective clouds. J. Appl. Meteorol., 35, 355–371, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1996)035<0355:Eftrso>2.0.Co;2.
Tokay, A., P. G. Bashor, E. Habib, and T. Kasparis, 2008: Raindrop size distribution measurements in tropical cyclones. Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 1669–1685, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007mwr2122.1.
Tokay, A., W. A. Petersen, P. Gatlin, and M. Wingo, 2013: Comparison of raindrop size distribution measurements by collocated disdrometers. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 30, 1672–1690, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech-d-12-00163.1.
Ulbrich, C. W., 1983: Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol., 22, 1764–1775, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<1764:Nvitaf>2.0.Co;2.
Ulbrich, C. W., and D. Atlas, 2007: Microphysics of raindrop size spectra: Tropical continental and maritime storms. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 46, 1777–1791, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007jamc1649.1.
Wang, G. L., R. R. Zhou, S. L. Zhaxi, and S. N. Liu, 2021: Raindrop size distribution measurements on the Southeast Tibetan Plateau during the STEP project. Atmospheric Research, 249, 105311, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105311.
Wen, G., H. Xiao, H. L. Yang, Y. H. Bi, and W. J. Xu, 2017: Characteristics of summer and winter precipitation over northern China. Atmospheric Research, 97, 390–406, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.07.023.
Wen, L., K. Zhao, G. F. Zhang, M. Xue, B. W. Zhou, S. Liu, and X. C. Chen, 2016: Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distributions observed in East China during the Asian summer monsoon season using 2-D video disdrometer and Micro Rain Radar data. J. Geophys. Res., 121, 2265–2282, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jd024160.
Wen, L., K. Zhao, Z. L. Yang, H. N. Chen, H. Huang, G. Chen, and Z. W. Yang, 2020: Microphysics of stratiform and convective precipitation during meiyu season in eastern China. J. Geophys. Res., 125, e2020JD032677, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jd032677.
Williams, C. R., A. B. White, K. S. Gage, and F. M. Ralph, 2007: Vertical structure of precipitation and related microphysics observed by NOAA profilers and TRMM during NAME 2004. J. Climate, 20, 1693–1712, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli4102.1.
Wu, Y. H., and L. P. Liu, 2017: Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in the Tibetan Plateau and southern China. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 34, 727–736, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-016-5235-7.
Yuan, X., K. Yang, H. Lu, Y. Wang, and X. G. Ma, 2023: Impacts of moisture transport through and over the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon on precipitation in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Atmospheric Research, 282, 106533, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106533.
Zhang, G., J. Vivekanandan, and E. Brandes, 2001: A method for estimating rain rate and drop size distribution from polarimetric radar measurements. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 39, 830–841, https://doi.org/10.1109/36.917906.
Zhang, G. F., J. Vivekanandan, E. A. Brandes, R. Meneghini, and T. Kozu, 2003: The shape-slope relation in observed gamma raindrop size distributions: Statistical error or useful information? J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 20, 1106–1119, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<1106:Tsriog>2.0.Co;2.
Zhang, G. F., S. Luchs, A. Ryzhkov, M. Xue, L. Ryzhkova, and Q. Cao, 2011: Winter precipitation microphysics characterized by polarimetric radar and video disdrometer observations in central oklahoma. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 50, 1558–1570, https://doi.org/10.1175/2011jamc2343.1.
Zhu, L., C. S. Lu, X. Q. Xu, X. He, J. J. Li, S. Luo, Y. Wang, and F. Wang, 2024: The probability density function related to shallow cumulus entrainment rate and its influencing factors in a large-eddy simulation. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 41, 173–187, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-023-2357-6.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Prof. Congzeng HAN for polishing the article and Prof. Yuejian XUAN for the 2DVD calibration. The authors thank the reviewers for their great help on the article during its review progress. This research was funded by the second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (2019QZKK0604).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Article Highlights
• In YBJ, weak precipitation accounted for 86% of the total precipitation time, while small raindrops comprised 99% of the total raindrop count.
• While stratiform precipitation dominates in the TP hinterland, convective precipitation also contributes significantly to short-term rainfall.
• The modified dual-frequency ratio method in the TP hinterland avoids the dual-value phenomenon in the dual-frequency precipitation radar rainfall retrieval algorithm.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, M., Bi, Y., Shen, Y. et al. Microphysical Characteristics of Rainfall Based on Long-Term Observations with a 2DVD in Yangbajain, Tibet. Adv. Atmos. Sci. 41, 1721–1734 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-024-3299-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-024-3299-3