Introduction

Among professions, teaching has been considered one of the most demanding (Lomas et al., 2017). Educators experience the reality of its challenges and are faced with its stress and challenges (Herman et al., 2018; Oberle & Schonert-Reichl, 2016). In a national survey by the Canadian Teachers’ Federation (2020), over 65% of respondents indicated that they are increasingly worried about their personal mental health, well-being, and ability to cope with heavy workloads. In addition, educators faced high levels of unhappiness and frustration with their work environment and conditions. However, these findings are unsurprising given their poor working environment and conditions. There is a lack of proper policies, support, resources, and funds in place to properly support the emotional and mental health of educators.

One major source of stress for educators has been attributed to negative teacher–student interactions, such as disciplinary problems and disruptive behaviors in the classroom. Despite being a major source of stress, research on the role of positive teacher–student relations and interactions has been scarce, particularly in constructs such as social and emotional competence (SEC; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Mutjaba and Reiss (2013) showed that certain teacher–student interactions may result in positive stress, improve well-being, and reduce negative emotions.

Improved SEC has been identified from a meta-analysis on teacher stress as a key factor in the prevention of teacher stress (Oliveira et al., 2021a, 2021b). While dealing with negative student–teacher interactions, teachers undergo emotional labor in managing their negative emotions which may result negatively in emotional burnout and exhaustion (Chang, 2009; Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007) and negatively related to job satisfaction (Klassen et al., 2010; Robinson et al., 2019) and mental health (Schonfeld & Bianchi, 2016). Developing a structured training model to improve SEC may result in better well-being and work productivity for educators. Consequently, social and emotional learning (SEL) encompasses encouraging positive classroom and school culture which promotes safe, caring, and encourages participation (Collie, 2017; Humphrey, 2013; Weissberg et al., 2015).

SEL for Educators

SEL involves teaching students’ competencies in the social and emotional domains such as relationship and self-management skills (Bridgeland et al., 2013; See Table 14.1). Oliveira et al., (2021a, 2021b) presents that SEL is advanced as a systematic framework to guide and assess student-targeted policies to promote the optimal development and reduce problem behaviors of children and youths and equip them with the tools to head on the challenges of the twenty-first century (Durlak et al., 2015; Tolan et al., 2016). Henceforth, most of the SEL interventions in the education context adopted a student centric approach (Domitrovich et al., 2016; Greenberg & Abenavoli, 2017; Oberle et al., 2016). Initially, a school-based approach was developed, through which teachers were identified as essential partners in SEL programs and assumed to be socially and emotionally competent to spearhead them (Durlak et al., 2015; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Consequentially, SEL programs were developed as sub-products of global interventions. These interventions prepared teachers to intervene with their students through teacher training on how to teach SEC to their students and also developed the teacher’s own interpersonal SEC to better relate and deal with their students (Greenberg et al., 2003; Osher et al., 2016). It was only recently that interventions targeting educators’ own SEC had been developed (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). The inclusion of teachers in SEL interventions is significant as their SEC plays a crucial role in how they perform in their work, social interactions, and their social and emotional well-being; it is through their SEC that teachers learn to adapt and overcome life challenges through their personal development and positive interpersonal relationships (Durlak et al., 2015; Tolan et al., 2016).

Table 14.1 Description of teacher-specific social, emotional, and cognitive skills within each SEC
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SEL Intervention to Educators’ Health and Well-Being

SEC and the ability to manage and regulate emotions in relation to the classroom is key to optimizing teaching effectiveness. Teachers need to regulate their emotional reactivity in response to student disruptions by managing the social and emotional dynamics of the classroom in order to create a warm and caring emotional climate most conducive to learning. Educators function best when negative emotions such as anger and frustration can be minimized while positive emotions such as enthusiasm and interest can be enhanced (Jennings, 2015). Recent SEL interventions specifically developed for educators have drawn attention owing to the positive impact on both the educators’ professional and personal development. The effects have extended beyond the educators’ well-being and performance to include those of their students (Durlak et al., 2015; Schonert-Reichl, 2017). It was suggested that the intervention had an impact on educators’ SEC, which contains specific outcomes related to the five key competencies of SEL.

On a personal level, higher SEC has been linked to decreased psychological distress (e.g., emotional exhaustion, psychological discomfort from stress, anxiety, depersonalization, and depression symptoms), physical distress (e.g., health complaints), and behavioral and physiological health indicators (e.g., sleep problem, cortisol level, blood pressure, and respiratory health) (Harris et al., 2016; Jennings et al., 2017; Roeser et al., 2013). Furthermore, studies (Carvalho et al., 2017; Crain et al., 2017; Domitrovich et al., 2016; Jennings et al., 2013) have shown that a higher level of SEC has also been associated with increase in well-being, specifically in outcomes relating to personal well-being (e.g., better job and life satisfaction, self-efficacy) and positive emotions (e.g., positive affect and personal accomplishment). Educators with higher SEC are more capable of taking on their job demands and achieving higher levels of work and personal life satisfaction and well-being (Crain et al., 2017; Talvio & Lonka, 2019).

The meta-analysis by Oliveira et al., (2021a, 2021b) evaluated the efficacy of interventions aiming to reduce burnout symptoms in teachers. The findings shed light on the possible impacts of SEL interventions on reducing burnout/stress symptoms in teachers; however, a theory-based approach is needed to investigate current research and drive future direction for more effective interventions that will complement traditional stress-reduction interventions such as cognitive-behavioral interventions and relaxation-based intervention techniques.

Autonomy Support and Mindfulness in Psychotherapy

To reduce stress and promote emotional well-being, autonomy support is a central concept in psychotherapy which aligns with the self-determination theory (SDT) by Deci and Ryan (1985). Autonomy support refers to the extent to which individuals feel that their actions and choices are self-endorsed and self-directed rather than externally driven (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ryan, 1993). This concept is particularly relevant as the primary task of therapy is to support autonomous self-exploration, identification, initiation, and sustaining a process of change (Ryan & Deci, 2008).

The process of supporting autonomy in psychotherapy begins with therapists and clients understanding and validating the individuals’ own internal frame of reference. This helps therapists facilitate the process of clients organizing and self-regulating their actions without imposing their own agenda or values on them. It also involves aiding the clients in understanding their own experiences and taking ownership of new behaviors without external agendas being imposed on them. Researchers (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Deci & Ryan, 1980; Kabat-Zinn, 1990) explained that mindfulness which is described as a quality of consciousness can (1) allow individuals to maintain steady attention and accept their prompt responses to thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations with non-judgment and (2) help individuals enhance their self-regulation skills and reduce reactivity by encouraging them to stay in the present moment and be aware of their thoughts and emotions while suspending judgment (Hölzel et al., 2011; Schussler et al., 2016). Individuals who are mindful tend to maintain a consistent and steady level of attention, noticing and accepting immediate responses to thoughts, feelings, and physical stimuli, encompassing awareness of their own internal bodily sensations (Khanna & Greeson, 2013). In the context of psychotherapy, mindfulness techniques are often integrated into the principle of autonomy support to help clients’ greater self-awareness, emotional regulation, and autonomy. The non-judgmental observation and acceptance fostered by mindfulness align with the principles of autonomy support, as clients learn to explore their inner experiences in a self-determined and non-coercive manner. This can contribute to more effective and empowering therapeutic experiences.

SDT and Educators’ Health and Well-Being

When an individual is mindfully aware of their inherent needs and experiences, then he/she is less likely to less likely dominate intra-psychic interaction and fulfillment of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Hodgins & Knee, 2002). As a result of satisfying the psychological needs, one is more likely to experience more autonomous motivation to engage in those activities. Autonomous motivation refers to motivation that comes from within, where individuals engage in activities because they find them inherently satisfying and valuable, rather than being motivated by external rewards or pressures (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Research in the context of education supports the idea that autonomously motivated behavior is advantageous for psychological functioning and overall well-being (see Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Teachers who would be autonomously motivated tend to show higher levels of self-efficacy in their teaching roles (Dybowski et al., 2017) as well as job satisfaction (Aelterman et al., 2019; Collie et al., 2017; Moe & Katz, 2020) which are consequences that extend to those working in teaching careers (see Fernet et al., 2012; 2016; 2017; Soenens et al., 2012). In addition, research has demonstrated that more autonomous forms of teacher motivation are related to less teacher burnout (Cuevas et al., 2018; Fernet et al. 2012) and well-being (Pauli et al., 2018). Hence, autonomous motivation tends to coincide with indicators of positive wellbeing as well as reduced levels of teacher distress. Given that teachers tend to experience high levels of stress and disorder (Gallup, 2014), establishing motivational mechanisms in teacher mental health will yield valuable insight about ways to promote healthier and more productive teaching workforces.

Study Aim

In relation to SEL’s components, fostering SDT concept such as mindful awareness would foster greater emotional regulation. Ryan and Deci (2008) stated that mindful awareness is a means for individuals to become more in touch with their emotions, introjects, and painful experiences which have been suppressed. Through being aware, individuals can examine their emotions, experience, or introjects and integrate them together. Mindful awareness enhances the integration process through fostering fuller acknowledgment of the various parts of one’s personality such that they can be brought into coherence and harmony (Deci & Ryan, 1991). Both SEL and SDT-based initiatives in education emphasize the development of positive self, moral, social, and emotional understanding.

Closer examination of the impact of using SDT with SEL on educators’ well-being and psychological health may shed light on how to improve current SEL programs available to educators. The main aim of this present systematic review is to examine the characteristics of SEL and SDT interventions targeted for educators, and the additional aim is to investigate the program’s curriculum for recommendation to future interventions.

Method

The systematic review was conducted and reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement (Moher et al., 2009).

Search Strategy and Study Selection

A comprehensive literature search was conducted using electronic databases: ERIC, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. We applied four sets of filters in the database search. The filters were applied to search for terms in the titles and abstracts of papers within the databases. The first filter was used to identify studies with an experimental design with the terms: experiment* OR trial* OR manipulate* OR intervention. The second filter was applied to identify SEL studies that the terms included SEL OR social emotional learning OR social, emotion*. The third filter was applied to identify SDT studies with the key terms: autonomy support* OR SDT OR self-determined motivation OR mindful* OR self-awareness. The third filters were used to identify populations with the following terms: adult OR educator OR teacher.

Review Procedure and Data Abstraction

The systematic search identified 1103 articles after the removal of duplicates (Fig. 14.1). All titles and abstracts were screened by two research team members at Motivation and Educational Research lab in National Institute of Education, independently co-screening 10% of the titles and abstracts; articles to be read in full were agreed on by them after discussion. One hundred and ninety-nine papers were read in full, with 11 included in the review.

Fig. 14.1
A flow diagram consists of, 1. Identification by database searching, 1103 and by literature review articles, 4, and records after duplicates removed, 811, 2. Screening by records screened, 811, and records excluded after title or abstract screen, 301, 3. Eligibility by full text articles assessed, 98 and studies excluded after full-text screen, 89, and 4. Included with studies in the analysis, 9.

Flow diagram of studies included in review

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One review paper that provided data relating to the same study was combined (Oliveira et al., 2021a, 2021b). The following pre-specified data were extracted from each study: (i) setting; (ii) study design; (iii) sample size (number of participants); (iv) characteristics of participants; (v) type of control group; (vi) SEL program; (vii) program components; (viii) outcome, outcome measure, and informant; and (ix) findings, including effect sizes were reported by the authors.

Quality Assessment of Reviewed Articles

Study quality was assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) Quality Assessment Tool for quantitative studies to assess for selection bias, study design, confounders, blinding, data collection methods, withdrawals, dropouts, intervention integrity, and analyses (Thomas et al., 2004). This tool was used in the recent review examining the impact of SEL interventions on teacher outcomes (Blewit et al., 2020) and is suitable for randomized, non-randomized, and pre–post-designs. Components were rated as strong, moderate, or weak across each study, based on guidelines in the EPHPP Dictionary, and an overall global quality rating was assigned. Studies were being rated based on the presence or absence of weak ratings. If a study had no weak ratings, it was rated as strong. If it had one weak rating, it was considered of moderate quality, and if it had two or more weak ratings, it was rated as overall weak.

Results

Descriptive Synthesis

Table 14.2 contains general characteristics of the reviewed interventions, and Table 14.3 provides a summary of intervention characteristics. The pooled characteristics of the nine studies included in this review are provided. The studies were published after 2013 and written in English. Eligible interventions were delivered in USA (n = 5), Portugal (n = 2), Canada (n = 1), and Israel (n = 1). Table 14.2 describes detailed information. The studies involved a total of 714 educators, with sample sizes ranging from 6 (Palacios & Lemberger-Truelove, 2019) to 224 (Jennings et al., 2017). The participants ranged from early educators to teachers.

Table 14.2 Report on general characteristics of the nine reviewed interventions
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Table 14.3 Summary of intervention characteristics of the included studies
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Intervention Design

As for the intervention features, most of the interventions were only targeted educators (n = 8). Sessions ranged from 3 sessions of 60–90 min (Cochran & Peters, 2023) to 30 h delivered through 10 weekly 2.5 h in-group sessions and a 5 h booster session 3 months after completion (Carvalho et al., 2021). Except for one qualitative study, all interventions have pre- and post-test assessments to measure effect (See Table 14.2).

Characteristics of Programs

Two interventions (Carvalho et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2021) examined Mindfulness-based SEL approach (MindUP). Two experimental studies (Jennings et al., 2013, 2017) examined Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) which is a combination of emotional skill instruction, mindful awareness practices, caring, and compassion practices. Other papers used the brief mindfulness and SEL training (Cochran & Peters, 2023), the mindfulness, SEC, and self-compassion skills training (Carvalho et al., 2021), SEL and mindfulness-based consultation session (Palacios & Lemberger-Truelove, 2019), and the Call to Care—Israel for Teachers (C2CIT) program employing mindfulness, self-compassion, and SEL skills (Tarrasch et al., 2020).

Curriculum of Programs

Regarding SEL training, five SEC domains (self-awareness, self-management, relationship skills, responsible decision-making, and social awareness) were introduced and practiced. Generally, the SEL skills in the review taught included: identifying and sharing emotions, learning to receive and provide social support, and developing perspective-taking and empathy skills (from C2CIT program in Tarrasch et al., 2020). Mindfulness-based training including mindfulness of breathing, mindfulness of body sensations, mindful listening, and mindful movement practices (standing, walking, stretching, centering) were employed in the interventions. Interventions imparting self-compassion skills utilized active listening exercises. The CARE program employed by Jennings et al., (2013, 2017) explained that compassion practice involves noticing emotional reactions while not acting upon the emotional reactions such as the urge to interrupt, offer advice, or judge others while listening. Activities such as group reflection, role-playing, reflection on poetry or readings, lecture, and homework assignments were used as part of psychoeducational content. The use of emotional journaling, self-care assessment, and nurturing activities were also used by Cochran and Peters (2023).

Outcomes Related with Well-Being and Psychological Health and Measures

The studies captured in this review examined the following psychological domains and well-being outcomes mainly, (i) mindfulness; (ii) burnout; (iii) self-compassion; (iv) affect, (v) empathy, (vi) well-being, (vii) mental health, and (viii) perceived stress and psychological distress. Measures for mindfulness utilized the Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Carvalho et al., 2021; Jennings et al., 2013), the Interpersonal Mindfulness in Teaching (IMTS; Tarrasch et al., 2020). Burnout was measured by the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory for burnout and the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (MBI) (Carvalho et al., 2017, 2021; Jennings et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2021; Tarrasch et al., 2020). Instruments to measure self-compassion included the Self-compassion Scale (SCS) invented by Neff, 2023 (Carvalho et al., 2017) and the Self-compassion Scale (SCS) invented by Raes et al., 2011 (Tarrasch et al., 2020). Perceived affect was measured by Affect the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule—Short Form (PANAS; Jennings et al., 2013); empathy was measured by the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Cochran & Peters, 2023); well-being was measured by the Well-being the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF; Carvalho et al., 2021); perceived stress and psychological distress were measured by The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Tarrasch et al., 2020) and the Patient Health Questionnaire 8-item Depression Scale (PHQ-8; (Jennings et al., 2017); and lastly, mental health was measured by The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF; Carvalho et al., 2021). One study (Jennings et al., 2013) categorized the following four instruments as measures for general well-being: The PANAS, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-20), and the Daily Physical Symptoms (DPS). Among the psychological domains and well-being outcomes, mindfulness and burnout were the mainly measured outcomes. Most of intervention groups in this review showed significant changes in their outcomes compared to their control groups. One study by Cochran and Peters (2023) which used a onefold intervention using mixed-method measures found no significant change in empathy. Garner et al. (2018)’s intervention compared mindfulness and SEL versus mindfulness only. Their findings showed that emotional competence improved more significantly in the mindfulness and SEL group. There was one experimental study (Palacios & Lemberger-Truelove, 2019) with phenomenological approach resulted how teachers experienced growth in emotional regulation from 12 consecutive weeks SEL and mindfulness-based consultation.

Discussion

The aim of this systematic review was to examine the characteristics of SEL and SDT interventions for educators. From SDT relating psychotherapy, mindfulness was mainly harmonized with SEL training as the components of interventions targeted at educators, with some studies including self-compassion skills. Mindfulness was popularly adapted in the interventions. Effective interventions reviewed in this paper contained the good integration of both mindfulness and SEL. Garner et al. (2018) explained that mindfulness and SEL trainings complement each other in the sense that they have similar goals of cultivating the ability of emotion regulation, empathy, and the capacity to remain resilient in challenging personal and professional situations (Lawlor, 2016). Carvalho et al. (2017)’s intervention explained that such similarities between the two trainings suggest that mindfulness and SEL skill trainings could be integrated together easily.

The use of mindfulness-based intervention may facilitate deepening the development of SEC. One view (Maloney et al., 2016) guided that mindfulness practice is theorized to develop one’s ability to aware external factors. Through mindfulness practices, one can foster stillness and calm and reflect on the necessary conditions for self-exploration which results in self-awareness (Mind and Life Education Research Network, 2009), and this may develop school structured SEL programs by providing a practical way to improve SEC. There is another view by Jennings et al. (2016) is that “mindfulness practice itself engage and promote self-awareness and self-regulation by focusing on non-elaborative, non-judgmental, present-centered awareness of each thought, feeling, or sensation in the attentional field” (Bishop et al., 2004, p. 232). This practice engages self-regulation of attention and non-judgmental awareness which can help teachers to become more adjusted to their own emotions and to regulate them more effectively. This can help teachers to enhance positivity and acceptance toward themselves and their experiences which leads to improve their own well-being and resilience in face of challenges. Consequently, the current review showed participation of SEL and mindfulness program aids in lowering levels of perceived stress, burnout, and psychological distress and in enhancing mindfulness, self-compassion, positive affect, empathy, and well-being. The review by Oliveira et al. (2021a, 2021b) showed the impact of SEC on the five key competencies (emotional acknowledgment, emotional regulation, social competence, and self-regulation) on educators’ SEL. Teachers who have strong SEC may have better equipped to handle the challenges that arise in their work and are more likely to experience a sense of efficacy and fulfillment in their teaching. This, in turn, can lead to a more enjoyable and rewarding teaching experience. However, when teachers experience distress, whether it be related to their personal life or their work, it can impair their ability to provide emotional and instructional support to their students. This can have negative consequences for both the teacher and the students. These demonstrated improvements at both the teacher and classroom levels provide support for key components of the SEL programs.

There were two interventions (Carvalho et al., 2021; Tarrasch et al., 2020) which applied self-compassion skills into the intervention. Self-compassion can be defined as a positive attitude toward oneself, characterized by a non-judgmental attitude of openness, understanding, and acceptance of one’s suffering, inadequacies, and shortcomings (Neff, 2003a, 2003b). It involves the expression of one’s true and authentic self being attentive to their inner states in a kind and positive attitude, worthy of others, and having emotional balance derived from mindfulness (Neff, 2003b; Neff et al., 2005).

Mindfulness and self-compassion would be interrelated concepts as mindfulness is the practice of paying attention to the present moment with non-judgmental awareness, and compassion is the sensitivity to suffering in self and others, with a commitment to try to alleviate it. By practicing mindfulness, one becomes more aware of the suffering that exists in oneself and others. This awareness can then be used to develop compassion, which involves feeling empathy and sympathy for others who are suffering, and a desire to help alleviate their suffering (Dalai Lama, 1995; Tsering, 2008). Compassion, in turn, can lead to caring, which involves taking action to help others. This may involve providing physical or emotional support or simply being there for someone in need.

The other aim of the review was to investigate all the programs’ curriculum. Most programs reviewed were designed to strengthen the theoretical premises of the belief that SEL and mindful activities or self-compassion skills may lead to new insights, emotional responsivity, and improved pedagogical practices. Furthermore, the programs were developed and evaluated by educational organizations (e.g., MindUP was developed by the Hawn Foundation). The MindUP curriculum was combined using various fields: cognitive developmental neuroscience, contemplative science, mindfulness, SEL, and positive psychology. Similar to other mindfulness programs, the MindUP curriculum centers around breathing practices and mindful awareness practices (e.g., mindful seeing and eating). Breathing activities and being aware of one’s body and mind were core ingredients in the practice of mindfulness.

Breathing exercises have been found to help regulate the automatic nervous system, focus the mind, and increase self-awareness. The quality of teaching increases when teachers are more “present”. More focused teachers may be able to better deal with stress. Mindful listening is the practice of granting one’s full attention to what is being shared with oneself in any moment. As a mindful listener, one will take in what others are saying with openness, curiosity, and non-judgment. Most mindful listening components in the SEL and mindfulness-based interventions were adapted to develop empathy and compassion skills. Kim et al. (2021) utilized mindful listening practices to sharpen SEC senses, while Carvalho et al. (2021) utilized it as part of developing mindfulness practice.

Conclusion

The systematic review found that SEL and SDT programs may strengthen adult’s well-being and psychological health, particularly for those who are engaged in the education sector. The major strength of this review was the integration of the SEL and SDT which offers an overarching construct that provided a viewpoint of an efficient intervention strategy. Additionally, the quality appraisal of the reviewed articles provided evidence for the methodological rigor of the reviewed articles and strengthened the interpretation of the findings as all the articles were assessed from medium to high-quality studies. The major limitation was although the review aimed to identify SDT components including basic psychological needs support and motivational components, it only found one component, mindfulness, which only relates to autonomy-supportive methods; thus, generalization of integration of SEL and SDT may be limited.