Keywords

4.1 Introduction

Tradition is a wider term that can be expressed in many ways, as a part of a religious program or an event in a family or as a function of time scale. The traditional food system (TFS) is sometimes related to the local food, indicating their ingredients and how they are made (Cayot 2007). Wide varieties of locally available food plants are the basis of culturally acceptable TFS followed by various indigenous groups across the world (Kuhnlein and Receveur 1996). TFS not only meet the requirement of a healthy diet but also act as medicines due to the presense of important bioactive compounds. According to Indian philosophy, food is the gift of Paramathma (God), and it should be for the survival, strengthening, and nourishment of the body (Bhat 2012). The Siddha system of medicine (a traditional medicinal system in India) was based on the theory that “Food is Medicine and Medicine is Food” (Sivaraman and Rajalakshmi 2005). Traditional food systems possess multidimensional aspects, which include cultural and economic significance (Trichopoulou et al. 2006). The usage of wild food plants (WFPs) by humans has a long history (Zohary et al. 2012). With the changing lifestyles and standards, attitude towards food and its ingredients also changes (Sproesser et al. 2019).

The identity and characteristics of the TFS of each indigenous group are preserved by the verbal transfer of traditional knowledge from generation to generation (Kuhnlein et al. 2009). The proper usage of underutilized and orphan wild plants can contribute to the well-being of a society in terms of health, economy, and livelihood (Romojaro et al. 2013). The food culture of a society greatly depends on the locality of origin, and their livelihood depends on the crops they cultivate (Wahlqvist and Lee 2007). Traditional food crops are plants that have historically remained an integral part of the farming system and dietary patterns in the world for long years but were later neglected and underutilized over time (Muthoni and Nyamongo 2010). Being more connected to nature, tribal communities have developed immense knowledge about traditional crops and their uses. There are many tribal communities with vast diversity in their cultures, environments, and in their traditions. These communities and numerous indigenous foods that still exist in their environment showcase and reflect the rich biodiversity which can be used to promote food security, nutrition, and health (Ghosh-Jerath et al. 2016). Nutritional, environmental, economic, and sociocultural values are considered key components of sustainable food systems (Akinola et al. 2020). Nowadays, wild traditional food crops are greatly accepted by the common people because of their significance in terms of key components of food security. The large variety of wild food crops is part of rural because of their affordability and nutritional security (Ray et al. 2020). Wild food plants are still widely used by indigenous communities across the globe. They prepare special dishes from the wild food plants that comprise their wild food plant based traditional food systems. As the WFPs are directly collected from the wild, these TFSs are not very common in the urban areas. This chapter summarises traditional food systems from across the globe that are based on wild food plants. This chapter is an attempt to provide a glimpse of the huge diversity and richness of the wild food plant based traditional food systems from across the globe. Examples of various TFS are taken from various different countries. This chapter further provides details about the preparation and the significance of the traditional foods (TFs) from the WFPs. This chapter also explores the health benefits of some of the TFs obtained from WFPs with examples.

4.2 Wild Food Plants

Wild foods have been consumed by humans since prehistoric times (Grivetti and Ogle 2000), but their importance in the human diet declined after the introduction of agricultural practices and the industrial revolution (Łuczaj 2010; Łuczaj et al. 2013). The low presence of wild food crops in urban diet makes their importance less in urban diets (Bharucha and Pretty 2010). Wheat, maize, and rice contribute to majority of the human calorie requirements (Fanzo et al. 2020). Wild food plants are used for many purposes other than a food source in many countries. Khatri et al. (2017) have emphasised the need to recognise the importance of the wild foods for nutritional security. In Nepal, of 62 wild food plants, 80% are used for other purposes like thirst quenchers, flavourants, and honey beers (Shrestha and Dhillon 2006). Many of the wild plants are also used for the treatment of livestock diseases (Mafimisebi et al. 2012). Huge diversity of wild food plants is still consumed by the indigenous communities (Ray et al. 2020). These wild food plants are mostly collected from the wild seasonally and sometimes they are also processed and used offseason. Several studies have documented the wild food plants from various regions of the world. Guarrera and Savo (2016) have documented 276 wild taxa distributed in 40 families in Italy. Another study also reported 357 taxa belonging to 72 families in Tuscany, Italy (Baldi et al. 2022). Wild food plants are also sold in the markets in some countries. A study by Łuczaj et al. (2021) recorded 110 species of wild edible plants being sold in the markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. Several WFPs are also used ad spices and herbs (Motti 2021). Pawera et al. (2020) have documented usage of 106 WFPs in West Sumatra, Indonesia. This study further found that there is a decline in the usage of WFPs in the past. A study by Thakur et al. (2020) recoreded usage of 49 edible plants belonging to 24 families among Gaddis (ethnic, tribal group spread across Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, India) of Himachal Pradesh. 

4.3 Traditional Food Systems Based on Wild Food Plants

A wide variety of TFS based on wild food plants exists among different tribal groups in the world (Devi and Suresh 2012). Traditional foods have their own significance in current dietary patterns (Trichopoulou et al. 2007). By definition, traditional foods mean ‘the food product with specific raw materials and recipes which is known for a long time and made through specific processes’ (Cayot 2007). The TFS is not only significant due to its health benefits but also plays a pivotal role in socioeconomic and cultural aspects (Kuhnlein et al. 2006). The diversity in the traditional foods among the indigenous group is proportional to their nutrient intake. A study done by Roche et al. (2008) among people of Awajun in the Peruvian Amazon indicates the positive relationship between traditional food diversity and nutrient intake by considering the Traditional Food Diversity Score (TFDS) (Roche et al. 2008). The studies on traditional foods enable the understanding of how much knowledge the tribal groups possess and how much effort they made to make each traditional diet (Inamdar et al. 2005). Women of tribal communities have a significant role in the protection and promotion of their indigenous foods. The production of indigenous foods of Northeast India, like Kinema, Tungrymbai, Hawaijar, Aakhone, Bekang, and Peruyyan are exclusively done by women of different tribal groups of Northeast India. The indigenous knowledge of the production of these foods is inherited from mother to daughter only (Tamang et al. 2009). In some countries like Nepal, the technologies and methods behind the production of traditional foods are exclusively done by specific ethnic communities (Dahal et al. 2005). Table 4.1 presents a list of traditional foods that are mainly prepared from wild food plants or uses any ingredient of wild food plant origin. This chapter provides traditional food names and their preparation and the ingredients used along with the significance of these traditional foods. Some examples of non wild food plants but greater importance as traditional food systems are also included in the table to emphasise on the importance and diversity of the local traditional food systems that have huge regional importance. Some traditional foods presented in the table also show meat as an important part but uses some plants either as spice or flavour or for any other purposes. This table is not extensive but a representative of the diversity of traditional food systems. There are many such examples from various parts of the world. Many databases can be created to document the wild food plant based traditional foods.

Table 4.1 A cross-continental overview of traditional food systems based on wild food plants
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4.4 Wild Food Plant-Based Traditional Foods as a Source of Healthy and Nutritious Diets

The transition from traditional foods to fewer nutrient-based foods significantly increased the percentage of people who have been suffering from noncommunicable chronic diseases (Batal et al. 2005). The addition of a small number of traditional foods to the diet can considerably increase the nutritional quality of the diet (Schuster et al. 2011). Many wild food plants are also used as medicines (de Medeiros et al. 2021). The traditional foods which are produced by microbial fermentation have their own nutritional benefits because of higher concentrations of proteins, amino acids, and vitamins (Sha et al. 2013). Traditional fermented foods effectively work against diarrhea through their antimicrobial properties (Watson et al. 1996). The underutilization of traditional foods among indigenous people created many health issues like malnutrition, underweight, stunting, and micronutrient deficiencies (Kuhnlein et al. 2009). Even though traditional foods function as a source of a healthy and nutritious diet, the environmental contaminants in traditional foods create problems related to health. The contaminants like heavy metals reach traditional foods mainly through local and long-range transport avenues (Kuhnlein and Chan 2000). Table 4.2. provides examples of the health benefits of some of the wild food plants that are part of traditionall foods. This table also provides the part of the plant used and the important nutritional component of the plant. Figure 4.1 provides an overview of the various activities associated with the wild food plants such as collection, marketing and processing. This figure also depicts the major roles of WFPs and the WFP based traditional food systems.

Table 4.2 Health benefits of wild food plants that are used for the preparation of traditional foods
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Fig. 4.1
A schematic illustrates collection of wild food plants from the wild classifies into raw, cooking, collection, marketing, and preprocessing. Raw leads to marketing and self consumption. Cooking gives traditional foods. Preprocessing leads to storage and traditional products. An oval on the left classifies into 4 values, medicinal, cultural, nutritional, and environmental.

Main activities associated with wild food plants such as collection, processing and marketing and the roles of the wild food plants and the traditional food systems based on them

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4.5 Traditional Food Systems and Food Security

“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO 2002). Physical availability of food, economic and physical access to food, food utilization, and stable food access are four dimensions of food security. The disturbance of any of these or all results in food insecurity (FAO 2008). The utilization of indigenous knowledge of the TFS, and its in integration with the current food systems, can effectively improve food security (Elliott et al. 2012). For the survival of human beings, the consideration of agricultural biodiversity along with the conventional systems is very critical (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2008). Several countries are very rich in their traditional foods. For example, South Korea's Kimchi is very famous traditional food. Nutritionally, kimchi is rich in vitamins, fiber, minerals and other important nutrients (Cheigh et al. 1994). 

The TFSs are getting more attention nowadays, which contributes to food nutrition and health (Chyne et al. 2019). Compared with common cultivars, traditional food serves as a good source of macro and micronutrients (vitamins A, D, C, and minerals such as iron, calcium, and zinc) (Ghosh-Jerath et al. 2015). The reports state that traditional foods have a higher nutritional value than market foods (Elliott et al. 2012). According to the FAO (Food Agricultural Organization), the world produces sufficient amounts of food for the global population. Wheat, barley, and rice are the main food crops in the international market. A comparison of modern dietary guidelines and agricultural production statistics reveals that although we are consuming energy rich crops, they lack micro and macronutrients (Borelli et al. 2020a, b). Diversification of the diets with traditional plant-based foods is one way to address the challenges of rapidly emerging diet- and lifestyle-related noncommunicable chronic diseases (NCDs) in indigenous communities around the world. Indigenous communities must rebuild native ecosystems, use traditional food crop cultivation methods, and revitalize traditional knowledge of food preparation, processing, and preservation in order to combat an NCD epidemic. A number of traditional plant-based foods are rich in bioactive compounds with diverse health benefits that are relevant to human health (Sarkar et al. 2020).

4.6 Cultural Importance of Traditional Food Systems

The food available from local resources that are culturally accepted are termed traditional foods; they may contain a wide range of plants and animals (Kuhnlein and Receveur 1996). These foods provide the essential nutrients for the sustainability of that community. Traditional food can be accessed by the indigenous people through their local resources. The knowledge about the TFS arises by various means like folk taxonomy, folk medicine, and sociocultural activities (Kuhnlein and Receveur 1996). Activities like harvesting and preparation of foods enable social relationships and knowledge transfer through the gathering of individuals in a community; it also facilitates a spiritual connection with the land (Lambden et al. 2007). TFS allows us to identify the major food in a culture which is obtained through local resources and their importance within the indigenous people. They play an important role in the health of indigenous people. The cultural identity of indigenous people can be identified through their traditional food system (Kwik 2008). Knowledge regarding traditional food systems had a greater role in sustaining a society in particular geographic areas and building up a healthy group (Bhat 2012). There is a very strong correlation between the type of traditional crops grown in a particular geographical region and the climate in that area. When the balance between these two gets lost, it will lead to the disarray of crop production, resulting in a change in the lifestyle of indigenous people paving the way to remodeling of tribal lifestyle and culture (Maldonado et al. 2014).

4.7 Environmental Importance of Traditional Food Systems

Food systems are complex entities that are not only related to human health and diet but also related to environment (Fanzo et al. 2021). Traditional agricultural food practices show positive signs in the regeneration of biodiversity and make healthy ecosystems (Deaconu et al. 2021). Traditional food crops are capable of growing in poor soil and show environmental plasticity (Chivenge et al. 2015). Considering the environmental adaptability of some traditional food crops, roots and tuber crops are capable of growing in high humidity conditions (Pearce 1990), cowpea is widely adapted to poorly fertile soil (Carvalho et al. 2017) and adapted to high temperature and drought conditions (Hall 2012). Indigenous traditional crops such as cowpea and pigeon pea can improve and restore the fertility of the soil by biological nitrogen fixation (Elowad and Hall 1987). Coarse cereals can be referred to as a good alternative crop for cultivation in stressed climatic and edaphic conditions (Rai et al. 2008; Kaur et al. 2014; Eliazer Nelson et al. 2019). Therefore, we can say that traditional food plants are important in the context of increasing environmental stresses.

4.8 Traditional Food Systems and Climate Change

Climate change makes adverse impacts that have cascading effects on various sectors of human life (Lawrence et al. 2020). The climate change negatively affects the lives of indigenous people around the globe. The disappearance of plant species, alternation of water quality and quantity, and changes in weather and soil all create visible impacts on the traditional food systems of indigenous people (Guyot et al. 2006). Indigenous people depend on a wide variety of plants, animals, and fungi as their food source, and they are also used for medicine, ceremony, and economic benefit. Even the water is also held as sacred by indigenous people. Climate change, along with other unfavorable conditions, affects the relationship between tribes and traditional foods. Traditional food production declines when the ecosystem and water resources are excessively used for other purposes. The ecosystem gets exploited through the pollution and introduction of invasive species and poor management. Climate change affects the total life cycle of traditional crops - by the affecting pollinators, timing in flowering time, and shift in harvesting time. These changes not only affect the production but also impact the food web (Maldonado et al. 2014).

4.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Rural communities across the world are generally identified by their locality, lifestyles, culture, and traditional beliefs they follow. But when considering eating habits, clear differences are visible even in different tribal groups in the same country or nearby states. As we all know, human civilization is closely related to agriculture, and it arises on land suitable for agriculture. It is clear evidence that our ancestors were aware of how food is essential for the our survival. Likewise, the indigenous communities depended on various food crops suitable for cultivating in their locality or available in their forests to balance their energy needs for their hard work. Though the used traditional crop species vary, it can be concluded that all the groups were capable of including proximate components, antioxidants, and various protective secondary metabolites through a diverse diet of tuber, legumes, leaves, fruit, oil seeds, flowers, and other edible parts in their diets. Knowingly or unknowingly, the diet they followed made them healthy, and these natural resources kept away the lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cancer, increased blood pressure, and cholesterol among them. According to WHO reports in 2005, lifestyle diseases or internationally so-called chronic diseases is the main cause of 61% of global death. An unhealthy diet is one of the reasons for this. So, healthy diet sources are very much important. In the recent years, we have witnessed the increasing importance of traditional foods. Identification, documentation, and improvement of these food crops and integrating them into our diet can be helpful for improving our existing food systems and making it more diverse. Identification of the plants with significant properties such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial can open new opportunities for drug development. In the future, more studies on the nutritional and pharmacological properties of these wild plants and the traditional foods based on them are needed.