Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve: An Overview

Abstract

India is one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world, and there are four biodiversity hotspots found in India. These are Indo-Burma, Himalaya, Western Ghats-Sri Lanka, and Sundaland. From a biological diversity point of view, India is very rich in resources due to its diversified habitat and climatic conditions. India also supports 7.5% of the total animal species of the world. In this chapter, an effort has been made to compile and provide a detailed account of the overview of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.

Introduction

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s “Man and the Biosphere” (MAB) programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and thorough science. As places that seek to reconcile the conservation of biological and cultural diversity with economic and social development through partnerships between people and nature, they are ideal to test and demonstrate innovative approaches to sustainable development from local to international scales. It aims to achieve three interconnected functions, namely, conservation, development, and logistic support. Each biosphere reserve is required to have the three connected zones, i.e., transition, buffer, and core zones (UNESCO 2017; Saricam and Erdem 2012).

The concept of “biosphere reserves” was initiated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO) in the year 1970 in order to facilitate the resolution of increasing conflict between people and the protected area under its Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB). The MAB, launched in the year 1970 by UNESCO, is a broad-based ecological programme aimed at developing within the natural and social sciences a basis for the rational use and conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment, to predict the consequences of today’s actions on tomorrow’s world, and thereby to increase man’s ability to manage efficiently the natural resources of the biosphere. The approach emphasizes the importance of the structure and functioning of ecological systems and their mode of reaction when exposed to human intervention, including the impact of man on the environment and vice-versa. The MAB is primarily a programme of research and training and seeks scientific information to find a solution to concrete practical problems of management and conservation.

It is aimed to bring at least one representative site in the country within each biogeographic province under the network of biosphere reserve and ensure their long-term protection and conservation by involving various stakeholders. Biosphere reserves are designated to deal with one of the most important questions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity, the quest for economic and social development and maintenance of associated cultural values. Conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variations promotes economic development, which is culturally, socially, and ecologically sustainable, and provides logistic support for research, monitoring, education, and exchange of information related to local, national, and global issues, which are important aspects of biosphere reserves (Rai 2002; Sharma et al. 2002).

Definition

The biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems. They are multipurpose protected areas where both flora and fauna are protected and are Science for Sustainability support sites, promoting research in ecological conservation and environmental preservation. UNESCO’s “Man and Biosphere Programme”, is an intergovernmental scientific programme, which aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments. It was launched by UNESCO in 1971. Under the programme, UNESCO has established the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR). Biosphere reserves are nominated by national governments. If selected by UNESCO, they are included in the WNBR. There are 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21 transboundary sites (as of January 2021; https://en.unesco.org). The WNBR of the MAB Programme promotes North–South and South–South collaboration and represents a unique tool for international cooperation through sharing knowledge, exchanging experiences, building capacity, and promoting best practices (www.unesco.org).

Criteria for Designation of Biosphere Reserve

• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of the value of nature conservation.

• The core area should be typical of a biogeographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.

• The management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities to bring a variety of knowledge and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development while managing and containing conflicts.

• Areas with potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of the environment.

Characteristics of Biosphere Reserve

The characteristic features of biosphere reserves are:

• Each biosphere reserves are protected areas of land or coastal environments wherein people are an integral component of the system. Together, they constitute a worldwide network linked by international understanding for the exchange of scientific information.

• The network of biosphere reserves includes significant examples of biomes throughout the world.

• Each Biosphere Reserve includes one or more of the following categories:

  • Biosphere reserves are representative examples of natural biomes.

  • Biosphere reserves conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest. It is recognized that these representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes, ecosystems, and genetic variations, e.g., one population of a globally rare species; their representativeness and uniqueness may both be characteristics of an area.

  • Biosphere reserves have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional patterns of land use.

  • Biosphere reserves have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems that are capable of being restored to more natural conditions.

  • Biosphere reserves generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research, education, and training are carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous, they can be associated with a cluster.

Functions of Biosphere Reserves

Conservation

• To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variations;

• To encourage traditional resource use systems;

• To understand the patterns and processes of the functioning of ecosystems;

• To monitor the natural and human-caused changes on spatial and temporal scales

Development

• To promote, at the local level, economic development, which is culturally, socially, and ecologically sustainable.

• To develop strategies leading to the improvement and management of natural resources.

Logistics Support

• To provide support for research, monitoring, education, and information exchange related to local, national, and global issues of conservation and development

• Sharing of knowledge generated by research through site-specific training and education

• The development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.

The Lima Action Plan for UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and Its World Network of Biosphere Reserves (2016–2025)

Vision and Mission of the MAB Programme

The vision is a world where people are conscious of their common future and interaction with our planet and act collectively and responsibly to build thriving societies in harmony within the biosphere. The MAB Programme and its World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) serve this vision within and outside of biosphere reserves (UNESCO 2017).

The mission for the period 2015–2025 is to:

• Develop and strengthen models for sustainable development in the WNBR;

• Communicate the experiences and lessons learned, facilitating the global diffusion and application of these models;

• Support the evaluation and high-quality management, strategies and policies for sustainable development and planning, as well as accountable and resilient institutions;

• Help member states and stakeholders to urgently meet the Sustainable Development Goals through their experiences from the WNBR, particularly through exploring and testing policies, technologies, and innovations for the sustainable management of biodiversity and natural resources and mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

Strategic Objectives

MAB’s strategic objectives for 2015–2025 derive directly from the three functions of biosphere reserves identified in the Statutory Framework for the WNBR and the key global challenge of climate change, identified in the Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves. These strategic objectives are to:

• 1. Conserve biodiversity, restore and enhance ecosystem services, and foster the sustainable use of natural resources.

• 2. Contribute to building sustainable, healthy, and equitable societies, economies, and thriving human settlements in harmony with the biosphere.

• 3. Facilitate biodiversity and sustainability science, education for sustainable development (ESD), and capacity building.

• 4. Support mitigation and adaptation to climate change and other aspects of global environmental change.

Strategic Objective 1

Conserve biodiversity, restore and enhance ecosystem services, and foster the sustainable use of natural resources

The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is a critically important challenge. Biodiversity provides insurance and supports human well-being through a range of ecosystem services. Loss of biodiversity results in reductions in ecosystem services, creating direct threats to human well-being, and is an important indicator of an unbalanced system where vital components are affected. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to human development and unsustainable consumption and production patterns are among the major causes of diminishing biodiversity globally. The current unprecedented scale of exploitation of our natural resources calls for their improved governance and stewardship.

Expected Results

• 1. Member states actively support their biosphere reserves as models for sustainable development by contributing to the implementation of global conventions and other multilateral environmental agreements and the achievement of relevant SDGs.

• 2. Alliances at local, national, and regional levels are established to support biosphere reserves in carrying out their biodiversity conservation function and provide benefits to local people, thus contributing to the achievement of the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan for Biological Diversity and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

• 3. Effective, equitable, and participatory planning for sustainable development in biosphere reserves specifically considers the rights, needs, and capacities of young people, as well as women and indigenous and local communities and their ownership, access to, and sustainable use of natural resources in and around biosphere reserves.

• 4. States, local government, international organizations, and the private sector support biosphere reserves through the effective use of the ecosystem approach, to ensure the continued delivery of ecosystem services both within biosphere reserves and to the wider communities that rely on their provision for their health and well-being.

• 5. The role of the MAB Programme in research and experimentation towards models and solutions for sustainable development, including their global diffusion, is strengthened.

Strategic Objective 2

Contribute to building sustainable, healthy, and equitable societies, economies, and thriving human settlements in harmony with the biosphere.

A burgeoning world population increasingly concentrated in rapidly expanding urban areas of all sizes, notably in coastal regions, has resulted in the overexploitation and unsustainable use of limited natural resources, accelerating pollution and environmental degradation, with significant impacts on human well-being. Healthy, equitable societies and economies, and thriving human settlements, are essential elements of the quest for long-term sustainability and social development. Achieving this objective requires in-depth knowledge of natural and cultural heritage, socio-economic realities, and innovative approaches to increasing resilience. Through its WNBR, MAB is uniquely well placed to support the transition to thriving economies and sustainable societies, not only in individual member states, but also through transboundary biosphere reserves. These provide opportunities for cooperation and understanding, as enabling environments that foster the harmonious coexistence of people and of people and nature, and promote a culture of peace with regard to the use of, and benefits from, shared natural resources.

Expected Results

• 1. Biosphere reserves act as, and are recognized and supported by, all levels of government as models for promoting sustainable development and advancing the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) relating to equitable and healthy societies and settlements.

• 2. Biosphere reserves act as models for exploring, establishing, and demonstrating sustainable economic systems that positively affect the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use.

• 3. Biosphere reserves act as models to explore, establish and demonstrate innovative approaches that foster the resilience of communities and opportunities for youth, through livelihood diversification, green businesses, and social enterprise, including responsible tourism and quality economies.

• 4. Functional mechanisms are established to ensure that those who facilitate the provision of ecosystem services from biosphere reserves are equitably compensated and supported by those who utilize and benefit from these ecosystem services, often in distant urban areas.

• 5. Biosphere reserves contribute directly to the health and well-being of those who live in them and those who are related to them.

• 6. Transboundary biosphere reserves are reinforced through multi-scale dialogue and capacity building specific to transboundary issues.

Strategic Objective 3

Facilitate biodiversity and sustainability science, education for sustainable development (ESD), and capacity building

Sustainability science is an integrated, problem-solving approach that draws on the full range of scientific, traditional, and indigenous knowledge in a transdisciplinary way to identify, understand, and address present and future economic, environmental, ethical, and societal challenges related to sustainable development. At a biosphere reserve level, this requires collaboration between all the different stakeholders, including scientists, policymakers, members of local communities, and the private sector. ESD promotes the inclusion of key sustainable development issues in teaching and learning to motivate and empower learners to change their behaviour through acquiring new skills, competencies, and values and to take action for sustainable development. Biosphere reserves, particularly through their coordinators, managers, and scientists, have key roles to play in operationalizing and mainstreaming sustainability science and ESD at local and regional levels, in order to build scientific knowledge, identify best practices, and strengthen the interface between science, policy, and education and training for sustainable development.

Expected Results

• 1. MAB and its WNBR are fully engaged with international, regional, national, and subnational research initiatives and programmes that contribute to the post-2015 development agenda and the SDGs.

• 2. The establishment of an international network of scientists working in biosphere reserves and with their managers/coordinators and other stakeholders.

• 3. Each biosphere reserve has an active research programme, based on the principles of sustainability science, which provides the basis of participatory decision-making and management in the biosphere reserve.

• 4. Traditional knowledge is used as a “knowledge input” for managing biosphere reserves while recognizing the importance of both empowering indigenous and local communities as guardians of unique knowledge, and maintaining cultural identity.

• 5. Training and capacity-building activities in biosphere reserves and at national, regional, and global levels address the interlinked issues of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, and the socio-economic and cultural well-being of human communities.

• 6. ESD activities take place in all biosphere reserves, including all partners of civil society. Biosphere reserves also serve as ESD hubs from which the models are disseminated.

• 7. Increased partnerships between biosphere reserves and UNESCO Education Sector programmes, such as the Global Action Programme (GAP) on ESD, the UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network (ASPnet), and the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, and other relevant education and capacity-building bodies of the United Nations.

Strategic Objective 4

Support mitigation and adaptation to climate change and other aspects of global environmental change

Climate change continues to be of paramount concern for the future of humankind. It is now extremely likely that human activities have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-twentieth century. According to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), warming of the climate system is unequivocal; many of the observed changes since the 1950s have been unprecedented over decades to millennia. The specific values of and opportunities for biosphere reserves in relation to climate change were recognized in the Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves (2008–2013) and the Dresden Declaration on Biosphere Reserves and Climate Change (2011). These aim to place a greater focus on the capacities of the MAB Programme and its biosphere reserves for mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change, and for integrating their contributions effectively into national and international climate strategies and policies. This requires simultaneously addressing the complex interactions between climate change and other aspects of global environmental change, such as loss of biodiversity, urbanization, desertification, degradation of land and water resources, and stratospheric ozone depletion.

Expected Results

• 1. The WNBR functions as a global network of regions to promote learning and pilot innovative actions to monitor, adapt to, and mitigate the effects of climate change and other types of global environmental change.

• 2. Member states actively support their biosphere reserves as models in implementing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS).

• 3. Member states and other decision-makers recognize and promote biosphere reserves as priority sites in developing and implementing strategies on climate change mitigation and adaptation, in particular through: (1) energy efficiency and the development and adoption of renewable and clean energy, including energy saving through responsible consumption; and (2) approaches related to carbon sequestration and REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation).

• 4. Member states actively promote the transfer of approaches developed in biosphere reserves to other countries and regions.

Biosphere Reserves in India

The Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme initiated by UNESCO in 1972 is a broad-based ecological programme aimed at the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment to predict the consequences of today’s actions on tomorrow’s world and thereby to increase man’s ability to manage the natural resources of the biosphere efficiently. The approach emphasizes research and training and seeks scientific information to find solutions to problems in management and conservation. The concept of biosphere reserves, especially its zonation, into core area(s) (dedicated to conservation), buffer area(s) (sustainable use), and transition area(s) (equitable sharing of benefits), was later broadly adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) process, which entered into force on December 29, 1993. The CBD has two principal objectives, namely, conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from its utilization. The Articles 6(20) of the CBD call for in situ and ex situ conservation, incentives for conservation and sustainable use, research and training, awareness and education, impact assessment, regulating access to genetic resources, access and transfer of technology, and provisions of financial resources. While dealing with these issues, CBD emphasizes nationally determined priorities and capacity and needs full and effective participation of local communities.

Biosphere reserves are special entities for both people and nature and they are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s needs. These reserves contain genetic elements evolved over millions of years that hold the key to future adaptations and survival. The high degree of diversity and endemism and the associated traditional farming systems and knowledge held by the people in these reserves are the product of centuries of human innovation and experimentation. These sites have global importance, having tremendous potential for future economic development, especially as a result of emerging new trends in biotechnology.

The Indian National Man and Biosphere (MAB) Committee was first constituted in 1972 as a follow up of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme initiated in the 1970s. The MAB programme is coordinated, serviced and funded by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi. The Committee supervises the activities under the programme and encourages interdisciplinary research, demonstration, and training. In the year 1979, a subgroup of the Indian MAB Committee identified 14 sites in India for being designated as Biosphere Reserve based on which subsequent advice of the committee, the Government of India has designated 18 Biosphere Reserve until 2020 (Table 1.1) of which, 11 are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The total area of biosphere reserves is 86,480.58 km², which is 2.54% of India’s total geographical area. These sites were identified on the basis of their unique biodiversity, naturalness, and effectiveness as conservation units. These reserves contain genetic elements evolved over millions of years that hold the key to future adaptations and survival of living organisms. The high degree of diversity and endemism and the associated traditional knowledge held by the people in these reserves are the product of centuries of human innovation and experimentation. These sites are of global importance, having tremendous potential for future economic development, especially as a result of emerging new trends in biotechnology.

Table 1.1 Details of biosphere reserve in India

National Biosphere Reserve Programme

The national Biosphere Reserve Programme was initiated in 1986, and its aims and objectives are described in the following sections.

Aims of the Scheme

• To serve as a wider base for conservation of the entire range of living resources and their ecological foundations in addition to the already established protected area network system.

• To bring out representative ecosystems under conservation and sustainable use on a long-term basis.

• To ensure the participation of local inhabitants for effective management and devise means of improving the livelihood of the local inhabitants through sustainable use.

• To integrate scientific research with traditional knowledge of conservation, education, and training as a part of the overall management of BR.

Objectives of the Scheme

It must be noted that BRs are not a substitute or alternative, but a re-enforcement of the existing protected areas. The objectives of the biosphere reserve programme are as follows:

• To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems

• To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends;

• To provide areas for multi-faceted research and monitoring

• To provide facilities for education and training; and

• To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through the most appropriate technology for the improvement of the economic well-being of the local people.

Criteria for the Selection of Biosphere Reserves

The criteria for the selection of sites for BRs are listed below:

Primary Criteria

• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation and should include additional land and water suitable for research and demonstration of sustainable methods of research and management.

• The core area should be typical of a biogeographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations representing all tropic levels in the ecosystem.

Secondary Criteria

• Areas having rare and endangered species

• Areas with a diversity of soil and micro-climatic conditions and indigenous varieties of biota.

• Areas with potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of the environment.

Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves

In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and the development of sustainable management aspects, biosphere reserves are demarcated into three inter-related zones.

Core Zone

The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher-order predators, and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economically important species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to the system.

Buffer Zone

In the buffer zone, which adjoins or surrounds the core zone, the uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, and grazing, which are permitted to reduce their effect on the core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are probably permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

Transition Zone

The transition zone is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is usually not a delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge, and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and areas for intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region.

Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the mountain chains of 836 islands, islets, and rocky outcrops located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean at a length of 800 km with a coastline of 962 km. These groups of islands have a continuation with the Arakan Yoma of Burma in the north and the Achin Head of Sumatra in the south. The Andaman and Nicobar groups of islands are separated by the 150 km wide Ten Degree Channel. Total landmass of these islands is 8249 km. The total area of the Great Nicobar Island is 1044 km. It is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome and is located in the Indo-Malayan biogeographic zone. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve is one of the 18 biosphere reserves created under the Man and Biosphere Programme of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. It includes two national parks: the Galathea National Park, which represents the Galathea river basin, and the Campbell Bay National Park, with high mountain ranges. The extremely high endemism and extraordinary diversity of species and community levels make the Campbell Bay National Park one of the hottest hotspots in the world. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve was included in UNESCO-MAB Network during May 2013.

UNESCO-MAB Net Programme and GNBR

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established an arena for promoting conservational approaches towards the better management, research, education attribute of the ecosystem with the sustainable development and progression in the form of Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) in 1971. The MAB Programme’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) was launched in 1976. As of January 2021, it comprises 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21 transboundary sites (https://en.unesco.org). It spans over a surface of 6,812,000 km² in 129 countries. It's almost the size of Australia, and there are about 257 million people living in biosphere reserves worldwide. The WNBR of the MAB Programme promotes North–South and South–South collaboration and represents a unique tool for international cooperation through sharing knowledge, exchanging experiences, building capacity and promoting best practices. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves consists of a dynamic and interactive network of sites of excellence and has emerged as one of the international tools to develop and implement sustainable development approaches in a wide array of context. Broadly following UNESCO's guidelines, the Indian National Biosphere Reserve Programme was initiated in 1986, and 19 biosphere reserves were established after identifying regions as potential sites for the preservation of biological diversity. In India, so far, only 11 biosphere reserves are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, Andaman and Nicobar, was included in UNESCO-MAB in May 2013.

Zonation Details

The entire northern part of the island and the area between the Alexandra River and Chengappa Bay is Zone I, with 520 km² of the core zone and 90 km² of the buffer zone. The buffer zone consists of 180 km² spread over 90 km² in each of the two zones. The southern part between the Sahini and Mani hill ranges, including the Galathea River, is Zone II with 185 km² of the core zone. The core zone represents the least disturbed region, existing more or less in its natural state. An outer area of 159 km² is designated as a transition zone for management requirements of the area, such as providing sustainable livelihood to the indigenous people. This includes providing safe drinking water to local people, compensation for damages to life and crops, and setting up of biogas plants to ensure the involvement of local people in conservation efforts. Eco-tourism activities are also in practice in other fringe areas, and eco-development works such as compatible agriculture, recreation, and other relevant sectors are in progress with the participation of local people.

Campbell Bay National Park: Campbell Bay National Park is situated in the northern part of Great Nicobar Island. In 1992, it was gazetted as one of the national parks of India. In 1996, it was declared as Campbell Bay National Park with an area coverage of 426.23 km2 under Notification No. 97(B)/96/F.No.CWLW/WL/31/1188, dated November 22, 1996.

Galathea National Park: Galathea National Park is situated in the southern part of the Great Nicobar Island. Along with Campbell Bay National Park in 1992, it was gazetted as one of the National Parks of India. In 1996, it was declared as Galathea Bay National Park under Notification No. 97(C)/96/F.No.CWLW/WL/31/1218, dated 28 November, 1996.

Climate

The climate of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve is humid and tropical. April is the hottest month of the year. The monsoon season extends over eight months from April to December. Most of the precipitation occurs during the Southwest monsoon, the first half of the season. The remaining is from the Northeast monsoon. There are considerable variations in the amount of rainfall received at different locations. Thus, the annual rainfall in the northern part is 3800 mm, while in the south, it is around 3000 mm. January to March is a fairly dry period. The temperature ranges from 22 °C to 32 °C. The average relative humidity is about 82%.

Geology

Very little information is available on the geological and geomorphologic characteristics of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve area. Great Nicobar Island falls in the sedimentary arc extending to the southeast, forming the Indonesian orogenic belt. The Great Nicobar Island is covered by rocks belonging to the Port Blair group. Lithologically, the group consists of a vast thickness of alternating sequences of grey sandstone and black shales with subordinate grits and conglomerates, which are termed Andaman Flysch or Greywacke. The sequence is 5000 m in thickness and exhibits beautiful folding. The microfossil assemblage suggests a Late Eocene to Oligocene age (45 to 25 million years).

Land Use History

The Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost island of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, located about 482 km south of Port Blair, the capital of the Union Territory. It lies between 6°45′ and 7°20′ N Latitudes and 93°37′ and 93°56′ E Longitudes. The total geographical area of the island is 1044 km² with a length of 55 km from Murray Point in the North to Indira Point in the South. The greatest width of about 30 km is in the north, which narrows down to about 3 km at the southern tip. Land use has been forest since time immemorial. Historically, the Great Nicobar Island is the land of Shompen and Nicobarese Tribes. The Shompen inhabit the interior forest. They are shy in nature and avoid contact with outsiders. They live around and along the perennial freshwater rivers and construct huts using palm and pandanus leaves. The Shompens are hunters and food gatherers, leading a semi-nomadic life. They cultivate yams, pandanus, coconuts, arecanuts, bananas, etc. They maintain small herds of pigs and also hunt wild pigs with spears and fish with harpoons. The Nicobarese are horticulturists. Coconut, pandanus, banana, papaya, yam, and other starchy roots and tubers are their principal items of crop. They also depend for food on hunting and fishing. Pig rearing is an important traditional job of Nicobarese. The Nicobarese live in villages located along the coast. The huts are made of wooden logs, stems of areca palm, coconut palm, etc., while the roof is thatched with grass, canes, bamboo, and coconut leaves. At present, their traditional beliefs and customs are changing, and modern education and government jobs are readily accepted if they are in their own place.

Reserve Inhabitants, Demographic Trends, and Dependence

Immigration of mainlanders began in 1969, when 337 families were settled on the southeastern coast of Great Nicobar Island. The total population of Great Nicobar Island was 6831 in 1991 of which 3745 resided in Campbell Bay. The economy of the settlers is based on agricultural production and fishing. Paddy, coconut, arecanut, and spices constitute the major agricultural produce. Rice is grown on a subsistence basis. Income generating horticulture crops include coconut plantations and arecanut plantations. Fishing is done mainly by the fisherfolk who migrated from Andhra Pradesh and settled in Campbell Bay and Shastri Nagar. Fishing in the creeks and bays is carried out using gill nets and hook and line. Much of the development resulted from the establishment of government and administrative facilities in the Campbell Bay area. Considering the great biological and cultural diversity and the need for their protection, the government of India, on January 6, 1989, constituted the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve as per the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

The Mongoloid Shompen Tribe, about 200–250 in number, lives within the biosphere reserve. They live scattered in the forest, particularly along the rivers and streams. They also depend on marine resources for sustenance. Another Mongoloid Tribe, Nicobarese, about 310 in number, lives in the villages along the west coast of the transition zone, rearing domestic pigs and fowls and with coconut plantations. They also go out for fishing in the sea. The settlers and mainlanders over 6000 live along the southwest coast of the island practicing agriculture, horticulture and fishing. The Shompen live wandering in the Core and Buffer Zones. The settlers and the Nicobarese live in settlements spread along the coast in the Transition zone.

Human Activities

One of the major threats to this biosphere reserve is from foreign poachers from neighboring countries. These poachers frequently visit this island and also the nearby islands, mainly for the collection of sea cucumber, the collection of nests of the edible-nest swiftlet bird, and also for the poaching of crocodiles, turtles, and other wildlife. Increase in the human population is also an important threat to the fragile ecosystem of this island. The main reason for the increase in population is an influx of people from outside mainly from the mainland. Increase in the population has resulted in clearing areas for development activities in the past and has affected the biodiversity adversely. Some of the local population is also reported to be involved in megapode hunting and the illegal collection of forest/wildlife produce. Influx of population has also resulted in the introduction of exotics like Lantana weeds and domestic animals like dogs, which have become a big menace to the nesting of leatherback turtles in the southern-east part of Great Nicobar.

Floral Diversity

The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve represents the Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest Type. This reserve is known for its unique biodiversity and houses rich genetic germplasm resources. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve represents the tropical rain forest in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the biogeographic region. The major forest area in this biosphere reserve is still in its virgin state and rich in species composition, and the vegetation is mainly tropical evergreen forest of the Indo-Malayan region. The Great Nicobar houses 650 species of angiosperms, ferns, and gymnosperms (Sinha 1999). The tree fern, Cyathea albosetacea, is dominant in many parts of the reserve. Other important plant species are Scaevola sercea, Heritiera littoralis, Pandanus sp., Terminalia bialata, Barringtonia recemosa, Rhizophora spp., Gnetum gnemon, Sterculia macrophylla, Elaeocarpus aristatus, etc. (Tables 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4).

Table 1.2 List of endemic flora of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

Table 1.3 List of rare and endangered plant of Great Nicobar

Table 1.4 List of medicinal plants used by Shompens

The top canopy consists of Dipterocarpus alartus, D. grandiflorus, D. pilosus, Artocarpus chaplasha. Hopea odorata, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Polyalthia cofteoides, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and many others. The second story trees are Palaquium ellipticum, Syzyium spp., Unona pannosa, Garcinia spp., and a number of others. Bamboo is not common, but species such as Oxytenanthera nigrociliata and Ochlandra spp. are met with in many places. The shrubs are often abundant, and the most common species are Strobilanthes spp., Lea spp., Pandanus spp., Evadia glabra, etc. Epiphytes, especially orchids, ferns, and mosses, are numerous. Grasses are often absent (Sinha 1999).

Faunal Diversity

The fauna consists of over 2050 species of animals. The vertebrate fauna includes 22 species of mammals, 106 species of birds, 32 species of reptiles, 8 species of amphibians and 314 species of fishes (Sivaperuman et al. 2018). Invertebrates are represented by more than 400 species of insects, including 73 species of butterflies and 155 species of moths, and a large number of other invertebrate species that await discovery (Tables 1.5 and 1.6). The important faunal elements of the biosphere reserve include the Nicobar treeshrew, Nicobar wild boar, long-tailed macaque, Nicobar civet, Nicobar pigeon, Nicobar megapode, Great Nicobar serpent eagle, leatherback turtle, and reticulated python.

Table 1.5 Faunal diversity in Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

Table 1.6 Endemic vertebrates in Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

The important faunal elements of the biosphere reserve include the Nicobar long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), Nicobar treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica), Nicobar megapode (Megapodius frycinet), Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela), Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica), Nicobar parakeet (Psittacula caniceps), and the edible-nest swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga).

Significance for Biological Diversity Conservation

The biogeography of Great Nicobar Island is unique and the region harbours a rich diversity in terms of species content, ecosystem and habitat types, and cultural grounds. The tract is rich in plant diversity and fosters a number of rare and endemic species such as Cyathea albasetacea (tree fern) and Phalaenopsis speciosa (orchid), to mention a few. A total of 14 species of mammals, 71 species of birds, 26 species of reptiles, 10 species of amphibians, and 113 species of fishes have so far been reported. The region harbours a large number of endemic and endangered species of fauna. So far, 11 species of mammals, 32 species of birds, 7 species of reptiles, and 4 species of amphibians have been found to be endemic. Of these, the well-known crab-eating macaque, Nicobar treeshrew, dugong, Nicobar megapode, serpent eagle, saltwater crocodile, marine turtles, and reticulated python are endemic and/or endangered species.

It is also the habitat of two tribes of Indo-Mongoloid stock, namely, the Nicobarese and Shompen. The Nicobarese, numbering about 500, live in villages located along the coast. They are horticulturists. Coconut, Pandanus, banana, papaya, yam, and other roots and tubers are the principal items of the crop. Besides, they also obtain their food through fishing and hunting. Pig rearing is an important traditional job for the women folk. At present, their traditional beliefs and customs are changing. They are now readily accepting modern education and government jobs. The second tribe, namely, Shompens, numbering about 200–250, inhabits the interior forests along the freshwater streams. They live scattered in thick forest in harmony with nature. They lead a semi-nomadic life and are hunters and food gatherers. They also cultivate yams, pandanus, coconuts, areca, banana, etc. They also hunt wild pigs with spears and fish with harpoons. The settlers, consisting of a population of over 6000, practice agriculture and exert pressure on natural resources.

Progression of Conservation and Management

The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve harbours a wide spectrum of ecosystems provided by tropical wet evergreen forests, mountain ranges up to a height of 642 m above sea level and coastal plains. These habitats support 650 species of higher plants and nearly 2000 species of animals. These are in addition to the lower plants and many invertebrate groups, particularly the insects and soil fauna, our knowledge of which is not complete. The biosphere reserve is also a home for many rare and endangered species of flora and fauna and helps them rear in nature.

The biosphere reserve holds a remarkable genetic diversity of plants, animals and other lower life forms, with an estimated 24% endemism over the number of species of some faunal groups. The economically important species, including the traditionally used ones, could be categorized as timber, edibles, fodder, plants, and animals with medicinal value, apart from the wild progenitors of cultivated crops and domesticated animals. There are several important timber-yielding plants, fruit trees, food plants, and a number of medicinal plants have also been reported from the region.

Issues and Concerns

Many scientists working on species within the Great Nicobar Islands ecosystem have established study sites within and outside of the park boundaries. The creation of a GNBR provides further opportunity for applied research, which monitors changes within the designated zones: core, buffer, and cooperation. An extended geography implies the need for more measurement of human activities and also a generalization up to the landscape scale. One of the most pressing needs would seem to be a consensus on the ecosystem units, their size and distribution across Great Nicobar Island. This would also provide us with a framework for species level research in the region.

Sustainable Development to Address in the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

• Protect and enhance the quality of life enjoyed by the citizens of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.

• Promote increased recognition and understanding of the cultural heritage of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.

• Promote demonstration sites to illustrate traditional sustainable practices of the regional economy.

• Encourage the development of innovative resource use and conservation techniques to explore new approaches to local resource issues.

• Encourage the development of appropriate nature-based recreation that is ecologically sustainable (eco-tourism).